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MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES
50
The Mental Health Benefits of Having Dogs on College Campuses
Trenton Adams, Catherine Clark, Victoria Crowell, Kolleen Duffy, Margaret
Green, Selena McEwen, Allison Wrape, and Frank Hammonds
Troy University
Abstract
College can be a stressful time for many, especially those dealing with problems like stress, anxiety, and
depression. While colleges and universities typically offer counseling services, many students who could
benefit do not take advantage of them. Research suggests that animals may play an important role in some
forms of treatment for conditions such as anxiety, stress, and depression. A recent trend on college campuses
is to offer opportunities to interact with dogs and other animals as a way to relieve stress and help
individuals deal with other psychological issues. In this paper, we discuss the current research regarding
using animals to assist in treatment for problems commonly faced by college students.We also describe our
own experiences with a university-sponsored animal-interaction day and offer tips on how others can
plan such an event on their campus.
Keywords: animal-assisted therapy, pet therapy, college students, stress, anxiety
Prevalence of psychological disorders among
college students
College can be a very stressful time for
students. Many are away from home for the
first time and may experience homesickness
or have difficulty functioning while away
from friends and family. Freshmen in
particular may face difficulties with adjusting
to a new situation and learning to handle new
responsibilities. Such difficulties are
compounded for individuals suffering from
psychological issues like anxiety and
depression.
According to the Center for Collegiate
Mental Heath 2015 Annual Report, 100,736
students at the 139 colleges and universities
contributing to the report sought counseling
during the 2014-2015 academic year, with
79,331 students attending at least one
counseling appointment. The most common
psychological issues faced by these students
were anxiety (56.91%), stress (46.63%), and
depression (45.93%). When clinicians were
asked to choose one primary concern per
client, they indicated anxiety (20.0%),
depression (15.8%), relationship problem
(specific) (9.4%), and stress (5.9%). The
report also revealed that over the previous 6
years, the number of students seeking
counseling services increased by 29.6% and
the total number of counseling appointments
increased by 38.4%; both of these greatly
exceed the increases in enrollment over that
time. While rates of some psychological
problems have remained relatively stable or
have declined, the report indicated increases
in self-reported depression, anxiety, and
social anxiety over the previous five years
(Center for Collegiate Mental Heath, 2015).
In another study, Beiter et al. (2015) studied
depression, anxiety, and stress among college
students. The researchers found that 11% of
the students reported dealing with stress,
15% experienced anxiety, and 11% struggled
with depression. The students who reported
dealing with stress also indicated a number
concerns causing their stress. These included
financial problems, academic success, post-
graduation plans, lack of sleep, and
relationships with family and friends. The
American College Health Association stated
that in the previous 12 months, 58.4% of
students reported overwhelming anxiety,
36.7% reported difficulty functioning due to
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
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51
depression, and 9.8% seriously considered
suicide (American College Health
Association, 2016). In the United States,
suicide is the second leading cause of death
for people ages 15-24 and ages 25-34
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2014). Drum, Brownson, Denmark,
and Smith (2009) found that 6% of
undergraduate students and 4% of graduate
students had considered committing suicide
in the past 12 months. Of the students that
had made a suicide attempt, 23% of the
undergraduate students and 27% of the
graduate students were considering making
another suicide attempt.
Another issue faced by college students is
autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In a review
of data from Wave 5 of the National
Longitudinal Transition Study-2, Roux et al.
(2015) noted that of all the participants (aged
21-25) with autism spectrum disorders, 40%
had attended 2 or 4-year colleges or
vocational/ technical school within eight
years of graduating high school. White,
Ollendick, and Bray (2011) estimated that
between 1 in 53 and 1 in 130 college students
meet the criteria for diagnosis of HFASD
(high-functioning autism spectrum
disorder). These individuals may face other
issues as well. White et al. found significant
positive correlations between symptoms of
ASD and social anxiety, depression, and
aggression among a sample of 667
undergraduate students. Literature
describing the experiences of college students
with autism spectrum disorders is scarce and
further research in this area is needed (Roux,
et al., 2015).
It can be difficult for students dealing
with mental illnesses or developmental
disorders to excel in their school work.
College students with mental illnesses are
about twice as likely as other students to drop
out of college. Approximately 86% of those
with mental illnesses withdraw before
graduating compared to 45% of the general
student body (Salzer, 2012). For college
students who are depressed, being involved
on campus, maintaining good grades, and
even preserving relationships with friends
and family can be difficult. Being more
involved with organizations, having a close
friend group, and having better relationships
with their administrators are all associated
with depressed students having higher
graduation rates and reporting higher
satisfaction with their college experience
(Salzer, 2012).
Whether it is anxiety, depression, autism,
or any of the other issues faced by college
students, it is clear that many students are
experiencing psychological challenges. Given
this, and the impact that these issues may
have on their academic success, it is
important that colleges offer services aimed at
helping students deal with their problems.
Students' use of counseling services
The need for mental health services for
college students has increased and it is
important that colleges work to meet the
demand (Center for Collegiate Mental
Heath, 2015). Many colleges offer counseling
services at little or no cost to students.
Unfortunately, fewer than half of students
with mental health issues seek help from
campus counseling services (Salzar, 2012).
The annual report from the American
College Health Association found that only
25.1% of students had been diagnosed with
or treated for any mental health condition in
the past 12 months (American College
Health Association, 2016). Kim, Saw, and
Zane (2015) stated that the relatively low
number of students seeking treatment may in
part be due to a lack of mental health literacy.
In fact, their studies showed that college
students who are experiencing depression or
anxiety were less likely to recognize
symptoms of depression and that all groups
of participants had low mental health literacy
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52
regarding anxiety. The studies also found that
participants experiencing at least moderate
anxiety or depression were less likely to
indicate a need to seek psychological help.
D'Amico, Mechling, Kemppainen,
Ahern, and Lee (2016) investigated college
students' usage of counseling services and
what barriers kept students from seeking
counseling. They found that those who were
the least likely to use the services had family
and friends who were likely to stigmatize
them for needing help. They also found that
those who were more likely to use the
counseling services were also more likely to
use alternative counseling services like yoga,
meditation, and exercise. Salzer (2012) also
hypothesized that many college students do
not use counseling services provided to them
because of a fear of retaliation and stigma,
and emphasized a need for colleges to
destigmatize mental illness.
A major problem is the lack of knowledge
that people have about mental disorders.
Some students may not take advantage of
counseling because of ignorance or
misperception of psychological issues.
Scientific research and anecdotal evidence
support the idea that college students with
mental illness experience intolerance from
other students on a significant scale; this issue
has become increasingly relevant as the
number of students with mental illness
attending college has increased (Granello &
Granello, 2000). Granello and Granello
found that students with more inclusive
definitions of mental illness were more
accepting. So it seems educating all college
students, including those who do not suffer
from psychological issues, could be beneficial
in increasing the number of students who
seek help when needed.
While colleges typically offer services
directed at assisting students with issues such
as stress, anxiety, and depression, White et al.
(2011) emphasized the growing need for
more effective accommodation for college
students with autism spectrum disorders. Of
the 40% of young postsecondary students on
the autism spectrum who participated in
Wave 5 of the National Longitudinal
Transition Study-2, the majority (87.3%)
reported being offered sufficient assistance or
accommodation by their schools. However,
only 68% of students felt that the services
they'd received had been at all helpful. Of the
students who informed their institutions of
their disabilities, only 48.6 % reported
receiving assistance or accommodation from
their schools while 17.6 % reported seeking
help from places independent of their
educational institutions (Roux et al., 2015).
It is clear that simply providing
counseling services is not enough. Colleges
must work to educate their students on the
importance of mental health while working
to destigmatize mental illnesses in order for
their students to feel comfortable enough to
seek the counseling services provided.
Increasing acceptance of those with mental
illnesses and creating a more inclusive
environment may lead to greater
participation in campus activities. Salzer
(2012) stated that getting students involved
on campus, especially students with mental
illnesses, is key to getting more students to
graduate and found that students who are
actively involved in campus activities are
more likely to graduate, regardless of whether
or not they suffer from a mental illness.
We have a long history of using
interaction with animals to improve human
health (Krause-Parello, Tychowski,
Gonzalez, & Boyd, 2012). As the following
section will show, animals have been shown
to have positive effects on people who suffer
from various conditions including
depression, stress, and homesickness.
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53
Benefits of pet therapy/interacting with
animals
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) is
becoming more popular among college and
university counseling centers because it offers
an effective option for students struggling
with anxiety and stress (Stewart, Dispenza,
Parker, Chang, & Cunnien, 2014). The use
of therapy dogs on college campuses has
become extremely popular since about 2005.
This is probably in large part due to the low
cost; the majority of university pet therapy
programs are free for students and
universities and most of the dog handlers are
volunteers. (Castellano, 2015). One study
involving college freshmen found that 96% of
the participants were in favor of having a pet
therapy program on campus (Adamle, Riley,
& Carlson, 2009). A quick internet search
reveals that many colleges are adopting such
programs.
Many college students suffer from
homesickness. For some, this may be a minor
issue, but for others, homesickness becomes
so severe that they see counselors for “crisis
appointments” (Shellenbarger, 2015). In a
recent study investigating the usefulness of
AAT as a treatment for homesick first-year
college students, a treatment group
participated in an 8-week program with
trained therapy dogs and volunteer handlers.
Participants had one 45-minute session on
the Friday of each week wherein they
interacted with an assigned dog for 30
minutes before being allowed to interact with
any dog present for the last 15 minutes. A
non-treatment control group was informed
that they were on a waiting list and never
received the treatment. The results showed
that the intervention was successful in
decreasing homesickness and increasing
satisfaction with life (Binfet & Passmore,
2016). Folse, Minder, Aycock, and Santana
(1994) investigated the utility of combining
AAT with standard psychotherapy sessions.
Although AAT alone was demonstrated to
be effective in reducing depression, the
results did not provide evidence for AAT as
useful compliment to traditional
psychotherapy. In contrast, Hoffmann et al.
(2009) found that the addition of a dog to
interview/therapy sessions significantly
reduced state anxiety as measured by the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).
Wisdom, Saedi, and Green (2009)
reported that for some adults, pets may
provide support not provided by a missing
family or may compliment whatever family
support the individual is receiving. College
freshmen in another study said that their pets
provided support and comfort during
stressful experiences. (Adamle, Riley, &
Carlson, 2009). McConnell, Brown, Shoda,
Stayton, and Martin (2011) found that pets
can provide social support even for people
who have support from others and that just
thinking about one's pet can help to alleviate
the effects of social rejection.
The impact pets can have in reducing
stress is well-documented. In one study,
college freshmen viewed a presentation about
pet therapy and then interacted with a
therapy dog. A majority of the participants
said they had left their pets back at home,
missed their pets, and thought it would be
beneficial for therapy dogs to come to campus
to help with stress. The researchers pointed
out that having access to therapy dogs might
also help students form new relationships
with others (Adamle, Riley, & Carlson,
2009). Thus, the animals might not only
reduce stress, but also alleviate homesickness
and perhaps put the students in a better
position to make new friends which could in
turn lead to an overall more enjoyable college
experience. Daltry and Mehr (2015) found
that simply interacting with a dog can
positively influence college student’s
emotional well-being. They also stated that
having a pet therapy program on campus
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
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54
helped with the establishing new
relationships and reduced stress among the
students.
Some studies have shown that animals
can have demonstrable effects on measurable
physiological correlates of stress. Somerville,
Kruglikova, Robertson, Hanson, and
MacLin (2008) found both male and female
college students experienced a decrease in
diastolic blood pressure immediately after
holding a dog or cat. Interestingly, this
reduction in blood pressure occurred only
after contact with the animal, not during the
actual contact. Krause-Parello, et al. (2012)
found that interacting with a dog decreased
cortisol levels (indicating a reduction in
stress) in college students who did not own
pets. Pet owners did not show this decrease
in cortisol levels. Another biomarker for
stress, the immunoglobulin IgA, was not
affected by interaction with a dog in either
group of participants. Polheber and
Matchock (2014) measured stress indicators
in connection with the Trier Social Stress
Test. Participants were randomly assigned to
have a dog, a friend, or neither present during
the experimental procedure. Before the Trier
test began, the participants were able to
interact with their friend or with Jazz, a 7 year
old golden retriever. During the Trier stress
test, either the friend or dog stayed nearby.
The participants who were in neither the
friend nor dog condition were instructed to
sit and relax. Participants in the dog
condition experienced lower heart rate and
lower cortisol levels than did the other two
groups. Researchers have observed that lower
levels of perceived stress are associated with
increased happiness and have suggested that
taking steps to decrease stress may facilitate
interventions aimed at increasing happiness
(Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010).
In addition to reducing stress, research
suggests that spending time with a therapy
dog reduces anxiety levels in college students.
Shearer, Hunt, Chowdhury, and Nicol
(2016) conducted a study that compared the
effects that mindfulness meditation and
interacting with a therapy dog had on the
anxiety and stress levels of college students.
The interactions with the therapy dog
decreased the amount of stress and anxiety
and were suggested to be an effective
treatment. However, the mindfulness
meditation sessions lowered the student’s
anxiety levels more than the sessions with the
therapy dog. Crossman, Kazdin, and
Knudson (2015) conducted an experiment
with three groups of students from a medical
school. The experimental group briefly
pet/play with a dog for up to ten minutes.
The no-interaction control group viewed
pictures of dogs. Lastly, the no-treatment
control group was told by the experimenters
that they would interact with the dogs, but
the participants only waited for the dogs and
did not get to play with them. Compared to
the controls, interacting with the dog was
accompanied by decreased anxiety and
negative mood and increased positive mood.
Stewart et al. (2014) investigated the
potential of a single two-hour session with a
therapy dog to impact anxiety and loneliness
among college students. The students were
able to interact with the dog and with other
students during the session. Pre- and post-
session measures indicated significant
decreases in anxiety and loneliness. Further,
the students rated the interaction with the
dog as being the most beneficial aspect of the
session.
Research has suggested that interaction
with animals can be helpful for individuals
with autism. However, Siewertsen, French,
and Teramoto (2015) point that it is still
unclear exactly what is causing the effects and
how long-lasting they may be. As stated
earlier, there is a lack of research on college
students with autism (Roux, et al., 2015).
More work in this area is needed so that
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
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55
individuals with autism may be able to benefit
from the growing trend of having therapy
animals on college campuses.
It is possible, and perhaps even likely,
that pet owners and people who do not own
pets differ in ways that may interact with the
potential benefits of animals on psychological
health. A recent study (Bao & Schreer, 2016)
indicated that pet ownership was correlated
with higher life satisfaction, but not with
increased happiness or decreased negative
emotions. The authors stated that pet owners
may be happier immediately after adopting a
pet, but that this increase in happiness may
diminish over time. The study also found that
dog owners were more extraverted and
agreeable than cat owners, which positively
predicted wellbeing. (Bao & Schreer, 2016).
Pet owners have been found to have lower
heart rates and lower systolic and diastolic
blood pressure when resting. It was also
found that, during a mental arithmetic test,
individuals who had pets had much lower
heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and
diastolic blood pressure rates and also had
these levels return to their lower, baseline
levels at much faster rates than their non-pet
owner counterparts. During the arithmetic
test, pet owners also produced more correct
answers with fewer errors at faster rates than
the non-pet owners (Allen, Blascovich, &
Mendes, 2002). Another study (McConnell
et al., 2011) found that pet owners had higher
self-esteem, were more physically fit, and
were less lonely. There were also personality
differences, with pet owners being more
extraverted and conscientious. Differences
between those who do or do not own pets
may help to account for differing effects of
interacting with animals such as those seen in
the Krause-Parello et al. (2012) study
mentioned above.
One obstacle to using animals to address
mental health concerns is that doing so may
not always be practical. Students will
experience stress, anxiety, depression, and
other conditions in situations where having
an animal present may be inconvenient or
may not be allowed. Individuals who make
use of emotional support animals (ESA) may
encounter the same difficulty; they may not
always be permitted to take their animals
with them wherever they go. For example,
some universities may not allow pets on
campus and may not consider ESAs to have
the same status as psychiatric service animals
(PSA). As a result, there will be some people
who will not always be able to have their
animals with them. Younggren, Boisvert, and
Boness (2016) discuss the high number of
individuals requesting documentation from
their therapist stating they need an animal or
pet with them for mental health reasons. The
documentation being requested would allow
the person to bring his or her pet with them
into pet restricted areas, including housing
and airplanes. The authors explain the legal
differences between ESAs and service
animals and discuss the legal and ethical
issues of certifying ESAs. Since people will
not always be able to have animals present,
identifying effective proxies would be of great
benefit. For example, if pictures, videos, or
recorded audio of animals could be shown to
have positive effects, students could benefit
from having contact with animals in a wider
variety of situations. Torres, Arnold, and
Shutt (2016) investigated whether images of
pets could affect math performance in a
classroom setting. They found that,
compared to images of desks or colored
squares, images of cats and dogs resulted in
participants experiencing less stress and being
more distracted. However, participants
actually solved fewer math problems than
when presented with images of colored
squares. Further study of this type of
procedure might reveal ways to reduce stress
in a classroom setting without a reduction in
academic performance.
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56
While there is a lot of evidence that
animals can be useful in reducing stress and
other psychological problems, not every study
is supportive of this conclusion. For example,
Straatman, Hanson, Endenburg, and Mol
(1997) found that the presence of an
unfamiliar dog did not reduce the stress
associated with preparing and delivering a
recorded speech. In another study, Henry and
Crowley (2015) investigated the effects of
incorporating a therapy dog into mindfulness
training. The researchers found that the
reductions in anxiety and depressive
symptoms did not differ from those produced
by mindfulness training alone. However,
participants reported being more excited and
satisfied during the mindfulness training
when the dog was present. Younggren,
Boisvert, and Boness (2016) state that a large
assumption is being made that AAT has
therapeutic effects and that more research is
needed. Hoffmann et al. (2009) noted that
many studies on AAT have lacked
appropriate research designs or have failed to
include standardized or physiological
measures of anxiety. Crossman and Kazdin
(2015) point out that more research is needed
to determine: how effective animal-visitation
programs (AVPs) are, which types of
interactions with animals are most effective,
how long sessions should last, the duration of
post-session psychological benefits, and why
interaction with animals has therapeutic
effects.
In addition to potential direct benefits to
psychological well-being, the use of animals
in therapy settings may also result in greater
participation and compliance with the
therapy. Schramm, Hediger, and Lang
(2015) investigated whether animal-assisted
mindfulness training could be beneficial to
patients undergoing mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy (MBCT) and whether
using the animals would reduce drop-out
rates. Participants attended eight group
sessions during which sheep were
incorporated into the therapy. The results
were promising; all participants completed
the program and attended every meeting. In
addition to reducing the drop-out rate to
zero, the procedure was successful in teaching
mindfulness skills as well as decreasing
rumination and depressive symptoms in the
participants.
There are at least two ways in which pets
and pet therapy may be useful in
destigmatizing mental illness and increasing
the chance that students will seek counseling.
First, students who are seeking counseling
may be open to pet therapy since they are
already more likely to try alternative forms of
therapy. Second, students who may be more
uncomfortable with seeking counseling
services may find obtaining a therapy dog to
be an acceptable alternative since having a pet
is common among college students and is not
likely to cause much objection or judgment
among friends and family. Having animals
present might also be a way to increase
participation in various campus activities and
organizations.
Having therapy animals on campus may
be a way for student counseling centers to
promote their services. Daltry and Mehr
(2015) found that many students at one
university were unaware of the counseling
services offered on campus before the
implementation of a dog therapy program.
Ninety-four percent of the students surveyed
stated that they would not have stopped at
the counseling center information table if the
dogs were not there (Daltry and Mehr, 2015).
So perhaps using animals may be an effective
way of getting college students to seek
therapy in the first place and to stick with it
after they begin. In addition, the mere
presence of animals may encourage students
to visit counseling centers or even their
professors' offices. Wells and Perrine (2001)
found that college students' perception of
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES
57
professors and their offices might be
positively influenced by the presence of a dog
in the professor’s office. The results of this
study also suggest that professors with dogs
in their offices may be more approachable
than professors with cats or no pets.
Our experiences with a dog day and what we
learned
In 2015, our university decided to start an
event called Puppies on the Quad. This was
intended to help students deal with the stress
of finals. The Student Alumni Association
hosted the event on campus in collaboration
with the Troy Animal Rescue Project
(TARP). We decided to attend Puppies on
the Quad in fall of 2016 to see for ourselves
how it worked and to learn as much as we
could so that we could offer advice to students
from other universities on how they could set
up something similar on their campuses. At
the event, 36 dogs and cats were brought into
a roped-off area outside the student activities
center. After signing a waiver, students were
allowed to enter the area and interact with the
animals. The dogs were on leashes and the
cats were provided with small enclosures in
which they could hide. Students were free to
play and interact with any of the animals in a
loose, unstructured environment. We found
the event to be quite popular; a quick count
found that approximately 70-100 students
were present at different times over the
course of an hour. We later found that
approximately 1,000 students participated
throughout the day. Many others watched
from outside the enclosed area and seemed to
enjoy the event.
In addition to the fun of the day and the
possible psychological benefits, the event
served other purposes. At the sign-in table
where students signed the waiver, the
organizers had forms that students could use
to apply to adopt any of the animals. By the
end of the day, students had signed up to
adopt all but eight of the animals (the lead
author adopted two of the cats). Sororities
and fraternities collected donations for
TARP and a prize (a puppy day) was awarded
to the organization that collected the most
money. Additional funds were raised by the
selling of t-shirts. We used the opportunity
to distribute flyers for the university student
counseling services.
How you can do this at your school
When organizing an event like Puppies
on the Quad, the first step is to determine
where you will get the animals. Rescue
organizations and animal shelters are good
choices because they have suitable animals
and students will have the opportunity to
adopt them. Once the animal shelter has
been identified and contacted, the next step
would be to get approval for the event from
the university. In our case, this involved the
Student Alumni Association working with
the Office of Student Services to get
approval. The approval process will vary from
campus to campus, but organizers should be
aware that getting approval may be a multi-
step process that could take weeks. We advise
planning well in advance of the chosen date.
Given that events like this are inexpensive,
popular with students, and have been shown
to be useful, most colleges will likely be open
to granting approval, as long as appropriate
safety measures are in place. A university-
approved liability waiver is essential. Anyone
entering the area to interact with the animals
should be required to sign the waiver
absolving the school of any responsibility
should the person be injured or otherwise
negatively impacted by the event.
Once the event has been approved, it is
important to advertise. This could be done
through flyers posted around campus,
through email announcements, and through
social media. In addition to increasing the
number of people present, letting students
know when and where you are hosting your
event could also ensure that anyone with an
MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF DOGS | ADAMS ET AL.!
MODERN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES
58
aversion to dogs is aware of the event taking
place and is not caught unaware.
Choosing the right location and time will
also increase participation. A good location
will be highly visible, convenient for the
students, and have plenty of room for the
people and animals to move around. Because
this event was hosted on our social quad it did
attract a lot of attention even though little
effort was put into advertising. As for
physically setting up the event, it is a good
idea to have a large area roped off with one
entryway to ensure that the animals are
contained, to minimize the risk of anyone
entering the area without signing the waiver,
and to ensure that no one would be able to
walk off with any of the animals. We strongly
recommend doing this in order to ensure the
safety of both the students and the animals.
We also recommend hosting your event
during the milder seasons and ensuring the
organization that is supplying the animals has
adequate water on hand to ensure the animals
stay properly hydrated. Tents or natural
shade will make the event more pleasant for
students and the animals. Other authors (e.g.
Reynolds & Rabschutz, 2011; Daltry &
Mehr, 2015) have offered additional advice
for anyone interested in bringing animals to
campus.
Conclusions
College students deal with a wide variety
of psychological and adjustment issues. Some
of which can be quite serious. While most
colleges do offer psychological services,
providing additional help to students could
serve to improve both their quality of life and
chances of academic success. Many studies
have demonstrated the benefits of
incorporating animals into therapy session
and into less structured environments like
Puppies on the Quad or simply owning a pet.
As some authors have pointed out, more
research is needed to better determine exactly
how animals may be improving therapeutic
outcomes. Bringing more animals onto
college campuses may be an effective,
relatively inexpensive way to help students
deal with psychological issues and may
increase the chances that they will learn
about, participate in, and continue with
traditional college counseling services.
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