The views expressed in this report are those of the author only and not the EBRD.
The potential for growth through Chinese infrastructure investments
in Central and South-Eastern Europe along the “Balkan Silk Road”
Report
1
prepared by Dr Jens Bastian for the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(with funding from the Central European Initiative)
Athens / London
July 2017
1
The author would like to thank the Central European Initiative for generous funding of the study. He is
also indebted to Daniel Berg and Peter Tabak as well as Ian Brown from the EBRD offices in Belgrade
and Sarajevo, respectively for the time and expertise provided. Peter Sanfey and Anna Engstrom from the
EBRD head office in London have engaged with the author in a spirit of cooperation and inspiration.
Finally, he would like to thank the participants attending the presentation of the report at EBRD
headquarters on July 18
th,
2017, in particular Dr Mattia Romani, XinXing Li and Libor Krkoska.
2
Executive Summary
President XI Jinping’s “One Belt, One Road” or “Belt and Road” initiative, launched in 2013, is
a Eurasian grand strategy that seeks to expand and secure maritime routes and road infrastructure
networks for China from Asia across Africa to the Middle East and Europe. The blueprint
includes a mosaic of trade deals, energy cooperation and financing agreements taking China
westwards.
With deep government pockets, growing technical sophistication and a comprehensive
investment plan, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aims to establish the country’s political
economy on a global scale. In various sectors, it is already achieving dominant status in terms of
production, consumption and distribution.
The BRI includes policy initiatives, investment priorities and business decisions by Chinese
authorities and companies that can have major impact on countries, regulatory authorities and
civil society organisations. Seen from a European perspective, the government-led investment
initiatives and lending arrangements originating in Beijing have repercussions in countries as
diverse as Germany, Greece, Serbia, FYR Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The rollout of the BRI project in 2013 brought new prominence to China’s political and
economic agenda. In consequence, its own forms of soft power are now on display along the
Balkan Silk Road initiative from Beijing to Athens and connecting with Belgrade, Sarajevo,
Skopje, Budapest, Tirana, etc.
With the availability of capital, technology and a master plan under the heading of the BRI,
Chinese investments in EU and non-EU member states create leverage for acquisitions and
infrastructure innovation on an unprecedented scale. Embarking on a concerted effort, state-
owned Chinese banks are providing loans at low interest rates to companies and political
authorities in south-eastern Europe. Equally, through the acquisition of ports, opening of bank
branches in the region or official lending for bridge building, highway construction and power
plant renovation, an infrastructure of transport and logistics networks is being created.
Below-market loans by Chinese state-owned commercial banks to finance new infrastructure
capacity is a welcome development for many in countries that are not prime investment
destinations or face limitations in terms of private sector lending. But it also raises concerns
among critics who question emerging levels of debt dependency on Chinese providers.
China’s ambitious BRI project can contribute to help transforming the western Balkans. Seen
from the Chinese perspective, their penetration of markets and sectors brings this periphery into
a more centrally positioned part of an integrated Eurasian economic zone that Beijing envisions.
The EBRD is engaging with Chinese companies and authorities along the Balkan Silk Road.
Tenders have been awarded, and more are expected in the future. This represents opportunities
and challenges that will have to be calibrated carefully. The report recommends a pro-active
course of action by EBRD offices on the ground.
3
Table of Contents
Executive summary: 2
1. Introduction: The Balkan Silk Road 4
2. Greece: Bridge Head for China’s BRI to Europe 8
3. Constructing the Balkan Silk Road 13
3.1 FYR Macedonia 16
3.2 Serbia 20
3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 25
4. Identifying Spill-over effects of the BRI 32
4.1 Anchor investments creating spill-over effects 35
4.2 Secondary spill-over effects 38
5. Identifying Barriers 41
6. Recommendations for the EBRD 44
7.1 Fostering Policy Dialogue 45
Appendix A: China’s New Silk Road: The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) 50
A1.1. The priorities of BRI 52
Appendix B: List of Interview Partners in Individual Countries 58
Endnotes 60
4
1. Introduction: The Balkan Silk Road
President XI Jinping’s “One Belt, One Road” or “Belt and Road” initiative, launched in 2013, is
a Eurasian grand strategy that seeks to expand and secure maritime routes and road infrastructure
networks for China from Asia across Africa to the Middle East and Europe. Beijing's vision of
the nature and aims of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) include various maritime sections, land
bridge connections and transport corridors across various continents. Together, they expand the
BRI's geography and thematic content. The geo-economic implications of this orchestrated push
from Beijing are potentially vast and long-term. They can shift commercial and geo-economic
axes of entire continents.
The Balkan Silk Road is the name given to the transport route and logistics corridor China has
begun to establish in the Balkan region under the BRI. The Balkans, and by extension south-
eastern Europe, is a region where China can empirically test various elements of the BRI. The
route starts with the flagship BRI investment into the Greek port of Piraeus, the first major
European container port for ships entering the Mediterranean from the Suez Channel.
It is no coincidence that Chinese investments undertaken in large EU member states such as
Germany are supplemented by large-scale infrastructure investments in the periphery of south-
eastern Europe. The prices for acquisitions are lower while demand for preferential lending
conditions is higher in countries along the Balkan Silk Road. Equally, the expansion of Chinese
investments towards the Balkan Silk Road is also driven by considerations of human capital
5
assets in the region. Labour costs in these countries remain low. The relocation or acquisition of
manufacturing facilities closer to EU destinations markets may also be influenced by rising
labour costs in China.
The first focus of this report is on Greece as a quasi-bridge head being established since 2009
through different port infrastructure investments and logistics initiatives. The “gate towards
Europe”, as the Chinese Prime Minister Li Keqiang termed Greece during a visit in 2014,
initiates the south-eastern European corridor of the Silk Road. Our roadmap then takes us
through the Balkans via the identification of other BRI projects, such as the Belgrade-Budapest
high-speed rail and onwards to other EU markets.
1
The acquisition of port infrastructure and the subsequent expansion of cargo handling, transport
and logistics capacity represents a key starting point in the establishment of transport routes
along the European sections of the BRI project. The manner and speed in which such expansion
is taking place is impressive, has a strategic logic and is product innovative.
The Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, which was held in Beijing on May 14-
15, 2017, constituted a unique opportunity for countries participating in the Balkan Silk Road
project to broaden their economic cooperation with China. Presidents or prime ministers from
Russia, Turkey, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, Italy and
Spain all participated in the event hosted by Chinese President Xi Jinping. The Forum focused on
the coordination of policies, the development of infrastructure projects, the promotion of trade
links, and financial sector cooperation. Specific agreements with countries in south-eastern
Europe were numerous.
2
At the Forum, the Chinese government signed economic and trade cooperation
agreements with the 30 governments, among which are Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia,
Armenia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia.
The Ministry of Commerce of China signed memoranda of understanding concerning
SME cooperation with the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech Republic and the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Hungary.
The Ministry of Agriculture of China signed the Memorandum on Determining the
Action Plan on Agricultural Trade and Investment with the Ministry of Agriculture and
Environment Protection of Serbia.
The China Export and Credit Insurance Corporation signed cooperation agreements with
the export credit agencies in Belarus and Serbia.
The Ministry of Education of China signed agreements on education cooperation with the
relevant departments in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Greek corporate representatives signed an agreement for the construction of a fiber-optic
network in the country.
6
President-elect Aleksandar Vucic from Serbia held talks about a Sino-Serbian industrial
park and negotiations about direct flights between China and Serbia.
The Export-Import Bank of China signed a loan agreement with the Ministry of Finance
of Serbia regarding the modernization of the Hungarian-Serbian Railway Line.
The Export-Import Bank of China also signed a loan agreement on a telecommunication
project with Telekom Srbija of Serbia.
According to data compiled from the European Commission and the Kosovo statistical agency,
the total trade volume between China and selected Western Balkan economies reached a level of
€3.3 billion in 2015-16. Serbia accounts for almost half of that total trade volume. China’s
ranking as a trading partner in 2016 after the EU-28 countries was as follows: third in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, fourth in FYR Macedonia, fourth in Serbia, second in Albania, third in
Montenegro and fourth in Kosovo (for 2015).
Source: Compilation and calculation by the author on the basis of country-specific data provided by the European
Commission, Directorate-General for Trade, 29
th
June 2017, http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-
regions/statistics/index_en.htm.
Data for Kosovo refers to 2015 from the Kosovo statistical agency website: http://askdata.rks-
gov.net/PXWeb/pxweb/en/askdata/askdata_External%20trade/?rxid=f81b30b9-6944-42e9-bdfa-726b83f624ee.
571
424
1469
424
204
233
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
FYR
Macedonia
Serbia Albania Montenegro Kosovo
Total Trade in Million € China and Western Balkan Economies 2016
7
Countries like Greece, Hungary, Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
FYR Macedonia are making concessions to Chinese investors and lenders precisely because they
want China to be embedded in their economies. For countries in the Balkans this embeddedness
can also serve as a hedge against Russian and Turkish involvement or present itself as an
alternative to EU investment aspirations. It is not so much a binary choice, e.g. between EU and
China or Russia and China as seeking additional economic partnerships, free-trade agreements
and lending options with Chinese companies, state entities and financial institutions.
Seen in this light, policy makers in Beijing, Tirana, Skopje, Belgrade, Sarajevo, Budapest and
Athens frame the narrative as a win-win strategy in the making. They argue that their countries
are opening up to China, but that at the same time China is opening up to south-eastern Europe
with investments and lending, trade and cultural exchange in various corners of the region.
As countries in the region need to improve their export capacity and attract foreign investment,
to the extent that China, Russia, Turkey or Gulf states are willing to provide such resources,
Greece, Serbia, Albania, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, and Hungary will see therein
opportunities and choices, while tending to downgrade the perception of risks and dependency.
8
2. Greece: Bridge Head for China’s BRI to Europe
Greece is the point of entry to the Balkan region for Chinese investments under the BRI. The
following sections map the development of the infrastructure and logistics sectors along the
“Balkan Silk Road” from Greece and up into the Balkans and Central Europe. Apart from the
initial maritime focus, Chinese investments in Greece have expanded to other sectors, most
prominently tourism and energy.
In recent years, China has moved aggressively to invest in Greece.
3
The details of this strategy
offer an interesting lens through which to view China’s growing capabilities and ambitions in the
Balkans and Central Europe. The initial investment in a container port terminal represented a
milestone marking Beijing’s expanding European ambitions, with major implications over time
not only in Piraeus, but equally in neighbouring countries.
The Piraeus Port Authority (PPA, Greek acronym OLP) is a formerly state-owned company
established in 1930. The PPA is the largest company of Greece’s port industry and one of the
biggest ports in Europe (in terms of container volume turnover). The PPA operates a system of
concessions contracts, of which the arrangement for Piraeus Container Terminal SA (PCT) is
the most important. The port facilities run by PPA are part of the Trans-European Networks
(TEN-T) and are thus eligible to receive EU financial assistance from the “Connecting Europe”
fund.
In November 2008, the Greek government of then Prime Minister K. Karamanlis agreed leased
half of the container port from PPA to China Ocean Shipping Company (COSCO)
4
for a 35+5-
9
year-period. The concessions contract – which became operational in October 2009 - included an
upfront payment of €678 million and follow-up infrastructure investments worth €230 million.
From the outset COSCO Hellas, the firm's subsidiary in Greece, expressed interest in plans to
buy a majority shareholding in the PPA. In August 2016 COSCO acquired 51 per cent of PPA
for the price of €280.5 million (US$ 312.51 million). The Greek privatization fund Hellenic
Republic Asset Development Fund (HRADF, Greek acronym TAIPED) still holds 23.4 per cent,
and other investors 25.86 per cent, of Piraeus Port Authority. The sales agreement stipulates that
should Cosco fulfil certain investment conditions up to €300 million in the next five years, it will
pay HRADF an additional €88 million and thereby increase its current stake by 16 per cent to a
total of 67 per cent.
5
The total purchase price would then reach €368.5 million for PPA.
Following the purchase agreement Hong Kong-based COSCO embarked on a multi-million
investment project to turn the port of Piraeus into a major cruise hub and transhipment logistics
centre for travel and trade between Asia and south-eastern Europe. This twofold investment
initiative includes the establishment and expansion of logistics bases through COSCO’s
subsidiary Piraeus Consolidation & Distribution Center (PCDC).
In addition, the new focus on tourism reflects rising demand from Chinese travellers to Greece.
As of Autumn 2017, Air China will commence direct flights between Beijing and Athens with
onward embarkation for Chinese passengers at Piraeus Port onto cruise ships sailing the Aegean,
the Adriatic coast and the Mediterranean. Similarly, COSCO Shipping signed an agreement with
China Eastern Airlines in May 2017 for charter flights bringing Chinese tourist groups to
Greece.
6
In February 2017, the China Development Bank (CDB) CEO Hu Huaibang announced the
lender’s intention to expand its presence in Greece, mainly via the financing of infrastructure
projects in the energy sector. A memorandum of understanding (MoU) between Greece’s central
bank and CDB had already been reached in July 2016. The MoU provides for the promotion of
bilateral retail and investment banking. CEO Hu noted that CDB – one of the world’s biggest
development lenders – had created special investment funds for the financing of enterprise
development in several European countries.
The MoU provides the financing vehicle for the implementation of a strategic cooperation signed
in October 2016 between the China Machinery Engineering Corporation (CMEC) and the state-
owned Public Power Corporation (PPC, Greek acronym DEH). CDB would provide up to €1
billion of financing options for infrastructure projects in lignite mining operations conducted by
PPC in Greece (e.g. the Meliti 1 project in Florina). The magnitude of the investment project is to
serve as a door opener for similar cooperation initiatives between Sino-Greek companies
expanding into the energy sectors of neighbouring Balkan countries.
10
Major Chinese Investments in Greece since 2009
Year
Greek
Company
Sector
Value in
Billion €
State of
Investment
Nature of
Investment
2009
PPA
Transport
Ports
0.678
Completed
Concessions
Contract
2014
Costa Mare
Transport
Container
Shipping
1.1
Completed
Official
Lending
2014
Thenamaris
Ocean bulk
Transport
Container
Shipping
0.340
Completed
Shipping
Infrastructure
2014
Libra
Diana
Shipping
Transport
Container
Shipping
0.490
Completed
Shipping
Infrastructure
2014
Veritas Ship
Management
Transport
Container
Shipping
0.158
Completed
Shipping
Logistics
2015
Terna Energy
Energy
0.880
MoU
Energy
Generation
2016
PPA
Transport
Ports
0.280.5
Completed
Majority
Shareholding
2017
Independent
Power
Transmission
Operator
(ADMIE)
Energy /
Electricity
0.320
First stage
completed
Ongoing
24%
Shareholding
(Right to
acquire 66%
majority)
Total
4.247
Source: Author’s compilation based on company reporting since 2009.
11
It should be borne in mind that the Chinese investment in Greece is not only the result of
carefully executed economic diplomacy for which the ground work was prepared years before in
Piraeus. In December 2016 China's State Grid Corporation, the world's biggest utility, purchased
a minority stake (24 per cent) in Greece's power grid operator ADMIE. This constituted China's
second major investment in Greece in the course of 2016, after the acquisition of PPA.
ADMIE was a fully-owned subsidiary of PPC that is subject to privatisation requirements on the
basis of Greece’s third macro-economic adjustment programme in August 2015, which is due to
expire in August 2018. Put otherwise, China is pro-actively participating in privatization projects
as mandated by international creditors in current or former so-called ‘programme countries’.
To illustrate: The minority stake investment in Greece supplements equity funding by State Grid
Corp. in Portugal (25 per cent shareholding in REN in 2012), Italy (35 per cent shareholding in
CDP Reti in 2017) and Spain (bidding for German utility E.ON’s northern Spanish grid).
This equity funding creates a network or cluster of investments that enables State Grid Corp. to
gradually establish a regional electricity grid portfolio in Europe. This development is all the
more remarkable since it is China-led and contrasts with the low level of cross-border grid
investments across the EU by European companies.
Greece’s International Trade in Goods with China (in € billion) 2013 - 2015
Exports
Imports
Balance
2013
0.419
2.19
-1.78
2014
0.279
2.49
-2.21
2015
0.271
2.87
-2.67
Sources: For 2013 and 2014 data: Eurostat newsrelaease: 116/2015 26. June 2015
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/6893875/6-26062015-AP-EN.pdf/44d4c87c-98dd-4061-bdf6-
b292884a5073. For 2015 data see: http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/grc/.
The value of imports from China to Greece is steadily increasing while exports are declining. As
of end-2015, the total value of bilateral trade surpassed €3 billion. The trade balance is heavily
tilted in favour of China. Placed in a regional context, Sino-Hellenic trade volumes are twice as
large as China’s largest trading partner in the Western Balkans, i.e. Serbia.
The largest trade and manufacturing fair of Greece, traditionally held in the second largest Greek
city of Thessaloniki, will host China as the honorary country during the 2017 exhibition (from
09. to 17. September). It marks 45 years since Greece and China launched diplomatic relations.
12
Unlike other potentially interested parties, China has the financial capacity, the risk appetite and
a long-term investment strategy in Greece. It has equally established a credible track record vis-
à-vis the Greek political authorities and the business community in Athens. It is now in a first-
mover position, submitting binding offers for projects which stand a high chance of being
accepted.
As is increasingly becoming clear, the initial Piraeus investment served the purpose of an anchor
investment that subsequently started to attract follow-up investment in sectors beyond maritime
ports and container shipping. This ‘anchoring’ process is at the initial stages of realization. In the
context of the BRI strategy for Greece, the priority sectors will continue to be (port) transport
infrastructure, logistics and energy. But these sectors are starting to attract new Chinese
investment groups such as Dalian Wanda Group Co. or Greenland Holdings Corp. which are
scanning other sectors, e.g. targeting tourism, commercial real estate, insurance companies and
banking services in Greece and beyond.
13
3. Constructing the Balkan Silk Road
The following sections seek to deepen our understanding of equity funding and debt financing
across central and south-eastern Europe (CSEE). This will first involve an analysis of the
pipeline of Chinese BRI projects in selected countries along the “Balkan Silk Road”. In a second
step the inquiry will discuss existing obstacles and how they could be overcome in order to
achieve mutually beneficial outcomes for countries participating in the Balkan Silk Road.
The level of engagement by Chinese state-owned companies, political leaders, diplomatic
representations, lending institutions, universities and cultural organisations in central, eastern and
southeast Europe is gradually redefining the relationships between China and these regions of the
European continent. In particular in countries comprising the Balkans, China is identifying
opportunities, while various EU member states currently regard the region primarily through the
prism of political instability, refugees and migration as well as the threat of terrorism and drug
trafficking.
By contrast, China is establishing new institutional settings for cooperation. Under the umbrella
of the BRI exists the “16+1” initiative. The 16+1 framework seeks to improve trade and
economic relations between China and 16 countries in Central and Eastern Europe, inclusive of
south-eastern Europe. The participating countries are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, FYR Macedonia,
Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia.
The first 16+1 summit was held in 2012 in Warsaw, Poland. Since then, four further summits
have been held in Bucharest (2013), Belgrade (2014), Suzhou (2015) and in Riga (2016). These
summits are embedded in the Cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European
Countries organisation, whose secretariat is located in Beijing (http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/).
On the summit occasion in 2012, the Chinese government delegation proposed the establishment
of the China-CEE Investment Cooperation Fund (http://china-ceefund.com/). A year later it
became operational. The Fund is registered in Luxemburg. Its two main investors are Chinese: (i)
Export Import Bank of China (US$ 470 million), and (ii) Exim Bank Hungary (US$ 30 million).
In November 2016, a second Sino – CEE Investment Cooperation Fund was launched with a
total volume of USD 11 billion. Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) is the main
funding contributor. The fund will be run by Sino-CEE Financial Holdings Ltd, a subsidiary of
ICBC). The fund was formally launched by Premier Li Keqiang during his visit to Riga on the
occasion of the fifth Cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries
summit. The fund seeks to raise 50 billion euros in project finance for sectors such as
infrastructure, high-tech manufacturing and consumer goods.
7
The first of these two funds established CEE Equity Partners Ltd., its investment advisory arm
(http://cee-equity.com/). Some of its most recent activities have been an investment by the Fund
in Javna Razsvetljava d.d. and JRS d.d. The two companies are market leaders in design and
implementation of public lighting and signalling solutions in Slovenia. In January 2017, the Fund
14
acquired a majority shareholding in both companies through a combination of capital injection
and the buy-out of existing shareholders. A second acquisition concerned the Invitel Group, one
of the leading players in the Hungarian telecommunications market (March 2017).
For countries participating in the 16+1 framework, Chinese capital and infrastructure projects
represent a tempting market proposition and “a potential platform for China to leverage its
growing economic and political influence with the EU as a whole.”
8
According to data from the
Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), China’s outward foreign direct investments into the 16
participating countries increased from US$ 400 million in 2009 to roughly US$ 3 billion in 2016.
The geographical concentration is noteworthy. According to CAS, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia represented 95 per cent of total Chinese FDI within the
16+1 framework in 2016.
The example cited earlier of COSCO investing in the Port of Piraeus in Greece forms part of a
larger strategic investment drive across CSEE and the Mediterranean. Apart from Piraeus,
COSCO has invested in port infrastructure in Albania, Montenegro, Israel, Turkey and Egypt. In
2016, it acquired a 35 per cent stake in the Rotterdam Euromax-Terminal.
9
A similar strategic
positioning within southern Europe can be observed by the State Grid Corporation of China,
with minority investments in grid operators in Greece, Portugal, Italy and possibly Spain.
What the COSCO and State Grid investment drives illustrate, is the systematic,
strategically driven construction of sector-specific portfolios and linking up their assets
across a larger region, i.e. the Mediterranean. The BRI is under construction along the
Balkan Silk Road, with a special emphasis on the transport sector and energy
connectivity.
o The former concentrates on supporting shipping routes, port accessibility, road
and rail infrastructure logistics and the distribution links of Chinese goods.
o The latter establishes a regional power network portfolio based on opportunities
emerging from privatisations in southern euro zone members that are current or
former so-called ‘programme countries’.
Such targeted, sectoral investment and strategic positioning becomes all the more
comprehensible when taking into consideration that the 16 countries represent a collective
population of over 100 million citizens. In many of these countries, in particular EU and Euro
area members, per capita income levels are gradually rising for many working constituents of
society. In short, there are manifest new consumer market opportunities presenting themselves to
Chinese investors in the medium- to longer-term within the 16+1 framework of economic
cooperation.
15
There are legitimate concerns about the Chinese engagement in the 16+1 framework. These
chiefly focus on the following policy areas:
Chinese companies employ few locals;
Chinese companies serve as proxies for the Chinese state;
The infrastructure projects and lending agreements burden governments with large debt
obligations.
The emerging Sino-Balkans relationship is a work in progress. The destinations for Chinese
investments and lending in the region are multi-layered and proliferating over time into other
areas and sectors. The beneficiary countries pursue state-led economic development, a focus that
pairs well with Chinese ambitions and mode of implementation.
From the Balkan’s perspective, China presents risks and opportunities, be it in lending,
engineering capacity or infrastructure development. While the risks are not ignored by decision-
makers, they do not take centre stage. Instead, the mixture of risks and opportunities is placed in
a narrative of choices and alternatives that Chinese activities offer.
For governments in the Balkans, and by extension in southeast Europe, that lack sizeable foreign
direct investment, complain about unproductive relationships with foreign donors and confront
obstacles regarding access to finance, the choice of finding alternatives with Chinese
counterparties is tempting and potentially promising. While the strategic rational should not be
ignored, the behavior of political authorities in southeast Europe vis-à-vis China is also driven by
opportunistic considerations.
16
3.1. FYR Macedonia
In one major respect, FYR Macedonia is an outlier in the Chinese investment and economic
cooperation strategy. Back in the early 1990s, the political authorities in Skopje sought
international recognition for their country while the so-called ‘name recognition dispute’ with
Greece was escalating. One means to achieve this objective was to simultaneously recognize
Taiwan, which in turn was prepared to provide considerable financial resources to FYR
Macedonia. This strategy was later abandoned by successive governments in Skopje in favour of
a gradual rapprochement with China.
FYR Macedonia: Top Trading Partners 2016 (total goods)
Partner / Ranking
Value Mil. €
% World
Imports:
EU 28
Serbia
China
Turkey
3,780
489
381
316
61.4
7.9
6.2
5.1
Exports:
EU 28
Kosovo
Serbia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
9. China
3,456
669
383
74
43
69.6
13.5
7.7
1.5
0.9
Total
Trade:
EU 28
Serbia
Kosovo
China
7,240
872
698
424
65.0
7.8
6.3
3.8
Source: European Commission, Directorate-General for Trade, 03.05.2017,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113381.pdf.
17
The most recently available international trade data for FYR Macedonia illustrates that China
was the country’s fourth largest trading partner in 2016 (treating the EU-28 as one partner),
reaching a total of €424 million. The trade balance is almost exclusively tilted in favour of
China, which is FYR Macedonia’s third largest import originator, while it features in ninth
position as FYR Macedonia’s export destination.
10
Major Chinese Investments and Lending in FYR Macedonia since 2006
Year
Chinese
Company
Sector
Value in
Million €
State of
Investment
Nature of
Investment
2006
China
International
Water and
Electric Corp.
Energy
Not
available
Completed
TP Kozjak
Hydro Power Plant
2010
Zhengzhou
Yutong Group
Public
transport
Not
available
Completed
Supply of double-
decker buses for
Skopje
2014
Sinohydro
Corp.
Exim Bank
Motorway
Construction
110 KM
574
Ongoing
Completion
for end-
2017
Lending /
Construction
Kicevo – Ohrid
Miladinovci – Stip
2014
China Railway
Rolling Stock
Corp.
Railway
50
EBRD
secured loan
Completed
Electrical trains
Railway
modernisation
2017
China Railway
Rolling Stock
Corp.
Electric
locomotives
Not
available
Ongoing
Supplementary
investment to 2014
Total
640
Source: Author’s compilation based on publically available documents and interviews with country representatives.
As a land-locked country in the Western Balkans, FYR Macedonia presents specific challenges
for enhanced economic activities by Chinese companies. As maritime considerations can be
excluded, terrestrial infrastructure projects are the main priority. Thus, the focus is on
establishing branches of logistical corridors in sectors such as energy, motorways and railway
modernization.
18
These corridors seek to connect FYR Macedonia with wider corridor initiatives along the Balkan
Silk Road initiative. Seen from this perspective, the limited Chinese investment in FYR
Macedonia nevertheless has a strategic focus. The country represents one of the connecting links
between port facilities being expanded or acquired in neighbouring countries and transport
infrastructure projects. Sino-FYR Macedonian economic cooperation dates back a decade when
the first major project was realized in the energy sector.
Subsequent infrastructure projects have focused on road construction and railway modernization.
These projects form part of regional, rather than country-specific initiatives that Chinese
companies and banks are supporting. Railway modernization in FYR Macedonia is a result of the
agreements between Hungary, Serbia and China along the Budapest – Belgrade Corridor X
initiative.
When driving from the Greek-FYR Macedonia border crossing of Bogorodica near Gevgelija to
the capital city Skopje, the construction sites of the A2/A3 highway from Kicevo to Ohrid
(57km) and the Miladinovci to Stip motorway are easily identifiable.
Financed through lending by Exim Bank, the two infrastructure projects are being built by
Sinohydro Corporation. Granit and Beton from FYR Macedonia perform much of the road work
as subcontractors. The Miladinovci to Stip highway will dramatically reduce travel time from the
capital Skopje to Stip, which is the largest city in the eastern region of the country.
Launched in March and June 2014 respectively, the two projects are expected to be completed by
end-2017. They form part of a larger programme to build a European corridor 8, East - West
throughout FYR Macedonia.They would thus provide an East-West highway corridor that
supplements the South-North corridor that was financed by the EU European Agency for
Reconstruction in early 2002.
In other more administrative related areas, bilateral cooperation is also advancing. To illustrate,
in June 2016 in Skopje, a bilateral meeting took place between the customs administrations of
FYR Macedonia and the People’s Republic of China. The aim of the meeting was to strengthen
the cooperation between the two customs services, established under the Framework Agreement
on Cooperation in Facilitating Customs Clearance among the Chinese, Hungarian, Serbian and
Macedonian Customs, signed in December 2014.
11
19
The EBRD is engaged in Sino-FYR Macedonia economic cooperation since 2014. The purchase
of four diesel and two electric trains by the government in Skopje from the Chinese company
CSR Corporation was financed by a €50 million loan secured by the EBRD.
The Chinese CSR Corp. was awarded the tender after beating the Swiss train manufacturer
Stadler. This investment was the second large procurement of transportation vehicles awarded to
a company from China. In 2010 China’s Zhengzhou Yutong Group was chosen to supply the
capital city Skopje with 202 retro-looking double-decker buses for its public transport system.
Signing of the loan
agreement for the train
project in Skopje in
May 2014
20
3.2. Serbia
China’s economic cooperation with Serbia has expanded significantly since the signing of a
strategic partnership agreement in 2009. The bilateral cooperation agreement included
infrastructure investments. Primarily project-based on the transport sector, the partnership
received extensive state-to-state funding from a variety of state-owned Chinese banks. The third
China-Balkans Summit under the 16+1 umbrella was held in Belgrade in December 2014.
Serbia: Top Trading Partners 2016 (total goods)
Partner / Ranking
Value Mil. €
% World
Imports:
EU 28
China
Russia
Turkey
10,944
1,447
1,277
581
63.7
8.4
7.4
3.4
Exports:
China does not
feature among
top ten
Total
Trade:
EU 28
Russia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
China
19,865
1,970
1,531
1,469
64.9
6.4
5,0
4.8
Source: European Commission, Directorate-General for Trade, 03.05.2017,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2008/august/tradoc_140028.pdf.
The most recently available international trade data for Serbia illustrates that China was the
country’s fourth largest trading partner in 2016, reaching a total of €1,469 billion. The trade
balance is almost exclusively tilted in favour of China, which is Serbia’s second largest import
originator, while it does not feature in the top ten positions as Serbia’s export destination.
12
Seen from a Chinese perspective, the Serbian market is rather small and it is a land-locked
country. But it is not size nor geography that matter. Connectivity is the underlying issue. Serbia
is an attractive partner since it has trade agreements with the EU, Turkey and Russia. It also
21
enjoys a level of political stability that is not a given in neighbouring countries. Equally, both
countries have established a visa free regime effective since January 2017.
The share of Chinese investment (Hong Kong included) in total FDI to Serbia was 3.1 per cent in
2015 and rose to 9.2 per cent in 2016. This considerable increase is primarily attributed to the
acquisition of the steel mill Zelezara Smederevo by China’s He Steel Group for €46 million in
2016 (see below). It must also be underlined that a major source of lending by Chinese banks is
carried out from Hong Kong, less so from mainland China. According to EBRD estimates, US$
350 million in lending during 2015-16 arrived from Hong Kong to Serbia.
Guoli Tian, chairman of the Bank of China, shakes hands with Serbian President Tomislav
Nikolic on the occasion of the branch opening in January 2017. Photo: Beta
In January 2017, the Bank of China (BoC) opened its new branch in Belgrade. It is a subsidiary
of the fully licensed BoC bank located in Hungary. BoC has a strategic partnership pact with the
Hungarian authorities since January 2017. This form of indirect investment should for the time
being be seen as a political decision in which a Chinese bank establishes a representation in
Serbia, only gradually building up its financial operations in the medium-term.
The primary focus is on serving client demands from Chinese and Serbian companies. The
bank’s chairman, Guoli Tian explicitly positioned the new branch as contributing to China’s
“One Belt, One Road” initiative. Strengthening its financial sector presence in Serbia and
establishing a banking hub for other clients in the region reflects the latest effort by China to
move its BRI forward.
13
22
However, it has to be underlined that the new branch currently has neither the capital nor the
management capacity to finance projects in Serbia. It is not (yet) a deposit taking branch and has
not extended any loans to private households or businesses.
Major Chinese Investments and Lending in Serbia since 2008
Year
Chinese
Company
Sector
Value
in Million €
State of
Investment
Nature of
Investment
2008
Official
Lending
Retail
32
Completed
Belmax Trade
Center
2011
Wolong
Group
Motors and
control systems
Not
available
Completed
Sever Company
2012
2014
Official
Lending
Energy
293
608
Ongoing
Thermal Power
Plant at Kostolac
2014
Official
Lending
Mihajlo Pupin
Bridge over
Danube
260
Completed
Bridge Building
2015
Mei Ta
Industrial
Auto Industry
60
Completed
Obrenovac
2016
Official
Lending
Construction
Corridor 11
350
Ongoing
Cross Border
Highway
Construction
2016
He Steel
Group
Investment
Steel Smederevo
46
Ongoing
Modernisation
Investment
2016
Official
Lending
Rail
Reconstruction
Over
one Billion
Ongoing
Fast Rail link
Belgrade –
Budapest
2017
Bank of
China
Banking
Not
available
Completed
Greenfield
investment
Branch network
Total
2,661
Source: Author’s compilation based on publically available documents and interviews with country representatives.
23
Serbia’s importance to China’s BRI has repeatedly been emphasized by Chinese President XI
Jinping, most recently during his three-day state visit in June 2016. XI sees Serbia playing a
leading role in the cooperation between China and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
Seeking to back up such diplomatic statements, Beijing is in the process of becoming a major
lender for infrastructure projects in Serbia.
The focus rests on the transport sector, i.e. roads and railways, the steel industry and energy
projects (see the table above). In November 2016 both countries also signed an agreement on the
mutual abolition of visas. To date, the only Chinese acquisition of a major Serbian company took
place in the energy sector. The steel mill Zelezara Smederevo is being sold to China’s He Steel
Group for €46 million.
The level of bilateral economic cooperation is further exemplified by two new project proposals.
Construction, Transportation and Infrastructure Minister Zorana Mihajlovic met with a
delegation of China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC) in April 2017 to discuss a project to
build a 45.4-kilometer road between Novi Sad and Ruma, the so-called Fruska Gora Corridor,
which will entail building a Mt. Fruska Gora tunnel. The Serbian authorities are also considering
an irrigation tunnel that would be built alongside the road, to link the Danube river and
Vojvodina’s district of Srem. The Novi Sad-Ruma road will be part of a route that runs to Sabac,
Loznica, and the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, linking Serbia with Croatia and Bosnia
and Herzegovina.
At the municipal level, the mayors from Belgrade and Shanghai signed an MoU for the
construction of a metro in the Serbian capital in April 2017. The Belgrade Mayor Sinisa Mali
said that the project would start within two years. The MoU also includes extending the cities’
cooperation in fields such as economy, education, culture, sports, environmental protection, and
tourism. Belgrade also plans to buy 80 electric buses, after recently procuring five, from Chinese
companies.
The most important form of economic cooperation concerns Chinese lending for Serbian
infrastructure projects. According to the IMF resident representative office in Belgrade, the
disbursed amount since 2014 is €425 million. This volume is mostly related to loans for
highways and power plant investments. This amount would be higher if bilateral loans are
included that have yet to be ratified.
This lending activity has two aspects. On the macro-economic side, capital inflows, e.g. in the
form of foreign direct investments (including from China), are seen as positive indicators
concerning the openness of Serbia for doing business. But capital inflows from Chinese state-
owned banks structured as concessional loans for infrastructure projects can also be a matter of
concern. It is currently not known how high the share of this lending is when awarded for
projects without a public tender.
Two major examples of Sino-Serbian loan agreements that circumvent public procurement
processes concern the aforementioned Belgrade – Budapest railway project and the completed
24
Mihajlo Pupin Bridge reconstruction over the Danube in Belgrade. It is a matter of debate among
(international) observers in Belgrade, if a formal tender process would make high-profile
infrastructure projects cheaper or not.
The diversity and volume of Chinese investments and lending in Serbia is therefore not without
its critics. The degree to which Serbia benefits from its expanding economic cooperation with
China depends on an assessment of whether the focus rests too much on loans for infrastructure
projects instead of direct investments. The rising trade imbalance illustrates that Chinese
companies are increasing exports to Serbia while state-owned banks provide infrastructure
lending at preferential rates.
14
Such credit-based economic cooperation is supplemented by many of the construction works
currently under way being conducted by Chinese companies. To illustrate the Chinese approach,
consider the following: the construction of the Friendship Bridge over the Danube in Belgrade in
2010 was carried out by the Chinese state-owned enterprise China Road and Bridge
Corporation. The loan for the USD 260 million investment was provided by the Export-Import
Bank of China.
It is noteworthy that the EBRD has awarded two tenders to Chinese companies in Serbia in 2016.
One tender is in rail reconstruction with a CCRC. The other concerns a hydro power plant
turbine. The Belgrade Airport concession tender process is currently underway. Four consortia
and one company have advanced to the second round where binding offers have to be submitted.
China’s Hainan Air Travel Service and China National Aero Technology have been chosen to
advance to the second round of the tender for a 25-year concession license to operate Belgrade’s
Nikola Tesla Airport, the largest in the Balkan region.
These examples illustrate that gradually a project relationship is emerging between the EBRD
and Chinese companies. The opportunity to do so in public tenders underlines the willingness of
both sides to cooperate with each other, e.g. by testing the waters how EBRD procurement rules
are adhered to by Chinese counterparties. There are lessons to be learned from these initial
experiences for the future relationship between EBRD offices along the Balkan Silk Road and
Chinese companies (see chapter 5).
25
3.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) does not yet feature prominently on the radar of Chinese
economic activities in south-eastern Europe. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has come from
Russia in the energy sector. Gulf states have started to invest in real estate and shopping centres.
Turkish FDI is mainly concentrated in SME activities.
Nevertheless, the volume of finance in play – committed or offered – from China could be
considered substantial. If indeed agreed and implemented – and this is a rather big if – then the
total sum would be exceeding €2 billion. Outright acquisitions have not yet taken place by any
Chinese companies. The core of their activities is concessional lending and participation in joint
infrastructure projects, mainly in the energy sector and prospective motorway construction.
The Political and Administrative Structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina (May 2017)
It is therefore necessary to distinguish between intended or reported (by BiH media) investments
on the one side, and the real but limited economic activities of Chinese companies in the country
on the other side. A major obstacle for the realization of further projects rests in the complex and
26
time-consuming political and administrative structure of the country, its entities and (in the
Federation entity) its cantons (see the overview on the previous page).
The most recently available international trade data for Bosnia and Herzegovina illustrates that
China was the country’s third largest trading partner in 2016, reaching a total of €571 million.
The trade balance is almost exclusively tilted in favour of China, which is Bosnia and
Herzegovina’s third largest import originator, while it does not feature in the top ten of Bosnia’s
export destinations.
15
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Top Trading Partners 2016 (total goods)
Partner / Ranking
Value Mil. €
% World
Imports:
EU 28
Serbia
China
Russia
5,068
928
558
362
61.4
11.2
6.8
4.4
Exports:
China does not
feature among
top ten
Total Trade:
EU 28
Serbia
China
Turkey
8.499
1,345
571
554
66.4
10.5
4.5
4.3
Source: European Commission, Directorate-General for Trade, 03.05.2017,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113358.pdf.
Lending flows from China to Bosnia and Herzegovina are geographically concentrated. So far,
two projects are located in the smaller Bosnian Entity, Republika Srpska (RS), and two in the
Federation of B&H. While the latter two focus on thermal power, the former two concern
motorway construction and a thermal power plant.
27
Major Chinese Investments in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 2009*
Year
Chinese
Company
Company /
Authority
Sector
Value in
Mil. €
Nature
of Investment
State of
Investment
2014
–
2017
Gezhouba
Group +
Guandong
Electric
Power
Design
Institute
Elektroprivreda
BiH (EPBBiH)
Tuzla (TPP)
Thermal
power
plant
Energy
722
15% co-financing
by EPBBiH
85 % loan from
Exim Bank
Framework
agreement
Lending
agreement
Seeking
loan
guarantee
2015
Sinohydro
Eximbank
Autoputevi
Republic of
Srpska (RS)
Transport
600
Motorway
construction +
Lending
Planning
stage
2015
China
Development
Bank
+
Dog fang
Electric
Corporation
Stanari
EFT
Doboj, RS
Energy
350
Official Lending
+
Construction of
thermal power
plant
Completed
2015
Dongfang
Electric
Corp.
Industrial
and
Commercial
Bank of
China
(ICBC)
Banovici
Energy
388
Thermal power
plant
Coal mine
operation
Tender
process
ongoing
Total
350
Source: Author’s compilation based on publically available documents and interviews with country representatives.
* The list includes both entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The total investment volume only refers to completed
projects.
28
In Bosnia and Herzegovina we can observe a disconnect between what Chinese companies and
banks are considering doing on the ground in BiH and what various representatives in the media,
political establishment and business community of the country would want to present as agreed
Chinese investments and/or lending activities.
To illustrate: the motorway operator Autoputevi Republike Srpske in the Bosnian-Serb entity
Republika Srpska (RS) claims to have signed a preliminary agreement with the Chinese firm
Sinohydro for the construction of a 93 KM long section of a 186 KM long motorway linking the
Entity’s capital of Banja Luka with Croatia’s Adriatic city of Split. But according to various
observers on the ground, this is a “dream” of the Entity’s president, Milorad Dodik, entirely
driven by “political considerations”.
Traffic-wise, it is not seen as making much sense, apart from the logistical and geographical
challenges of building such a stretch of motorway through very mountainous terrain. There are
also doubts about the fiscal capacity of RS to finance such an infrastructure project, the cost of
which will allegedly reach €600 million. What is clear, nevertheless, is that there are no
sovereign guarantees forthcoming from the state of BiH for the Entity’s project.
This absence of a sovereign credit guarantee at the state level cannot be compensated for by RS
resources. Equally, no Chinese bank would currently be prepared to extend such a credit line to
the authorities in RS without sovereign state guarantees for repayment obligations in case of
delays or defaults. In the state structure of BiH, such guarantees are frequently extended to
infrastructure projects (including to EBRD co-financed projects) and the waterfall structure of
repayment obligations in BiH revenue streams prioritizes multi-lateral lenders when it comes to
getting repaid on time and in full.
A second proposal in the project pipeline concerns the Banovici thermal power plant. The
project is reported to have been subject to a qualifying and final tender process in which three
Chinese companies participated directly and a fourth indirectly via a consortium led by Spain’s
Abengoa SA. There is currently no timetable for any final decision on the tender.
The project is being led by the state-run coal mine operator Banovici. However, the
operator has never built, let alone operated, a thermal power plant. Equally, there are
widely differing views about the cost-effectiveness of the proposal.
The cost of (thermal) power production in BiH suggests that effective value for money
considerations would derail the project. This may help explain why the final tender
decision is outstanding for over two years.
In 2014, Bosnia's Federation selected a consortium of China's Gezhouba Group Company
Limited and Gunagdong Electric Power Design Institute as the preferred bidder for the
29
construction of Unit 7 at Tuzla coal-fired power plant. The thermal power plant project is located
northeast of Sarajevo in the country’s third-largest city.
Little material progress was made on the project's implementation since 2014. This delay
was attributed to the lack of financing arrangements and reservations expressed by
European Union institutions concerning environmental requirements and future revenue
generation capacity for the power plant.
In November 2016, the Bosnian power utility Elektroprivreda BiH (EPBBiH) signed a
framework agreement for the construction of the 450 MW unit at the existing Tuzla
thermal power plant (TPP) with China's Exim Bank. The deal emerged on the sidelines of
the 16+1 summit of the heads of government from central and eastern European (CEE)
countries and China in Riga, Latvia.
The framework agreement paves the way towards the finalisation of a loan agreement for the
construction project. EPBiH would finance 15 per cent of the project, worth a total of € 722
million. A loan from China's Exim Bank would cover the remaining 85 per cent. Elektroprivreda
BiH requested in January 2017 a government guarantee for the loan. The issuance of such a
guarantee would be negotiated with the finance and energy ministries of Bosnia's Federation.
The Chinese bank is reported to be offering a loan for 20 years with a grace period of 5 years and
a repayment period of 15 years.
16
If implemented on these reported terms, the project would be
the largest post-war foreign direct investment in BiH.
17
The only large infrastructure project that has been completed with Chinese involvement concerns
the Stanari thermal power plant in Doboj, Republika Srpska. The project started in 2014 and was
completed in 2016. Power production has started. The China Development Bank provided a €350
million loan to construct the facility. China’s Dongfang Electric Corporation was hired by the
private owner – Energy Financing Team (EFT) – to build the facility. It is thus a private project
in RS with no sovereign state guarantee provided.
As regards the EBRD interaction with Chinese representatives, regular meetings with embassy
officials are taking place. Chinese companies have started to bid for stretches of motorway
projects in which the EBRD is a co-financing partner (e.g. together with the EIB). One such
project concerns the Corridor Vc Motorway, running North-South in BiH. But so far, no
contracts have been awarded to participating Chinese companies. The key reason has been that
they were not the cheapest bidders.
These developments on the ground lead us to the following conclusions:
At the level of the State of BiH there appears to be no strategic roadmap vis-à-vis the
question on how to deal with Chinese activities or project proposals. Rather, a case-by-
case approach seems to prevail.
30
If and where Chinese companies are active in BiH, the reality on the ground in terms of
projects that have been agreed, are fully financed and work has commenced stand in stark
contrast with the ambitious, but frequently unrealistic intentions of local authorities and
political representatives.
In one specific project in RS, the Chinese involvement in the Stanari thermal power plant
underlines that the Chinese are so far only prepared to take construction and limited
financial risks, but are not willing to simultaneously take on operation risk.
Chinese companies are starting to engage in open international tenders based on EBRD
procurement rules. But compared to EBRD-Sino project cooperation in Serbia, this
development has not yet led to contract awards in BiH. However, it may be only a matter
of time until the first EBRD contract will be offered to a bidder from China.
The Foreign Trade Chamber of B&H is one of eight members of the Western Balkans Chamber
Investment Forum (WB CIF), established in Vienna in August 2015. It sees itself as supporting
the Berlin Process and facilitating any prospective investment by foreign entities. Their contacts
with Chinese representatives have been limited so far. The 2017 Sarajevo Business Forum (May
22-24) is dedicated to ‘One Economy – One Region’. The rhetorical similarity with China’s One
Belt – One Road cannot be mistaken.
The Chinese diplomatic and business-related presence in international conferences is growing. It
serves primarily to establish networking opportunities. An increasing importance is being
attached to initiatives such as the Jahorina Economic Forum, a mountain retreat conference
termed the “Davos of BiH”. The Chinese Embassy in Sarajevo is said to have as many staff as
the Russian diplomatic representation. However, observers and analysts on the ground report that
so far China has refrained from any political involvement in BiH.
Sarajevo is also the seat of the Regional Cooperation Council (RCC), established in February
2008 as the successor to the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The RCC’s mandate is
focused on “developing and maintaining a climate of dialogue, tolerance and openness towards
cooperation throughout the SEE region…promoting the European and Euro-Atlantic aspirations
of its participants.”
18
To date this mandate does not include any formal contacts or institutional cooperation with
Chinese authorities. Neither have Chinese ministries, companies or banks ever contacted the
RCC. China does not feature on the radar of the RCC and membership in the RCC is not an
option, nor is it feasible (the Russian authorities sought membership in the RCC, but were told
that this would not be accepted).
The RCC considers any Chinese requests for cooperation as entirely a government-related
matter. Put otherwise, if governments in the region seek these contacts, then it is their decision
only. The RCC is not a party to these contacts, nor does it want to become one.
31
While direct cooperation with, or research activities about, Chinese activities in the region are
not on the RCC’s radar, it can nevertheless be argued that the RCC is seeking to facilitate
regional cooperation in policy areas that can also indirectly benefit foreign investors and/or
lenders such as from China. To illustrate, key pillars of the RCC’s current 2017-2019 mandate
are: (i) connectivity, (ii) mobility, and (iii) providing e-procurement assistance to governments in
the region.
In particular the latter activity is of significance for any foreign investor in the region seeking to
participate in public tenders today or in the future. The RCC promotes the development of e-
services in public administration, working with governments in the region to increase
transparency in areas relevant for doing business (e-customs, e-procurement, one-stop-shops for
mobility and migration, municipal e-permitting systems). All these types of e-services will
become ever more relevant for governments in the region, the more foreign investors, including
from China, participate in public tenders and/or provide funding for infrastructure projects along
with the arrival of Chinese workers on such projects.
In general, the Chinese activities to date in BiH are limited, signifying more rhetoric than
substance. Policy makers and analysts in Sarajevo argue that China is only at the beginning of a
much larger engagement in the region of south-eastern Europe. However, doubts remain about
the extent to which this will benefit BiH. The political instability of the Federation, unresolved
constitutional challenges and geographical reasons
19
are seen as drawbacks that limit an
expansion of Sino-Bosnian economic cooperation.
32
4. Identifying spill-over effects of the BRI
China’s engagement in south-eastern Europe is multi-layered. The region can be seen as a testing
ground for China’s growing European ambitions, whether through the construction of roads,
investments in ports, power grids or railways. As China implements its BRI along the Balkan
Silk Road spill-over implications materialize over time in particular in terms of regional trade,
links to China’s manufacturing sector and its commodity exporters.
At this early stage of development, the identification of tangible spill-over effects from the BRI
in south-eastern Europe remains a challenging matter. There is no simple or straightforward
conclusion about mutually beneficial spill-over effects. China and the 16+1 countries are starting
to emerge as partners with common and distinct interests. To complicate the matter of spill-over
effects further, their manifestation in macro-economic data is time-sensitive.
With the exception of Greece and to a certain degree Serbia, where spill-over effects are feasible
and sustainable over time, the current discussion of positive repercussions for countries along the
Balkan Silk Road rather focuses on soft power spill-over effects. Put otherwise, the growing
Sino-Balkan relationship has diverse implications for individual countries, depending on size of
the domestic market, demographics, geographical conditions (e.g. port accessibility or land-
locked), level of political stability and progress made in the EU accession process.
While the potential for such spill-over effects from ambitious new (and well established) trade,
transport and investment links exists, current developments on the ground in Serbia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina and FYR Macedonia suggest that they often seem to fall short when it comes to
measurable results. The multiplier effect of major infrastructure investments only manifests itself
over time. Individual domestic companies in the construction sector benefit from motorway
projects for the duration of such projects. But the sustainability over time remains limited.
The commercial success of the port of Piraeus in Greece following Chinese investments almost a
decade ago is an outlier in that respect. The expansion of the port in terms of building additional
peers and increasing the volume of container traffic has created sustainable spill-over effects (see
section below on anchor investments). But in other countries most local workers on Chinese
infrastructure projects represent low-skilled jobs such as trench-digging or lorry driving.
But the overall impact of Chinese investments on GDP growth in the region appears difficult to
quantify at present. Few of China’s immediate beneficiaries along the Balkan Silk Road can
currently claim that Chinese infrastructure investment and closer trade ties have created
significant spill-over effects in areas such as SME development, additional job creation or a
reversal of existing trade imbalances.
Chinese companies are aware that critics point to these deficits. But they are only at the
beginning of pro-actively engaging with civil society representatives, non-governmental
organisations, chambers of commerce and universities on issues ranging from the transfer of
professional skills, environmental impact assessment or strategic SME development.
33
All parties concerned agree on the need for a clearer medium-term understanding of the
commercial terms of engagement by Chinese companies and political authorities in Beijing.
Commerce counts for much – especially when a market the size of China is involved for
countries along the Balkan Silk Road whose need for improved export capacity is obvious, but
difficult to access new markets.
Source: Compilation based on data provided by European Council on Foreign Relations, ‘China’s Investment in
Influence: The Future of the 16+1 Cooperation’, ecfr.eu, December 2016, p. 7.
The major contribution of China’s BRI activities in the region of south-eastern Europe is the
facilitation of closer trade links and lending activities. Seen from the perspective of Chinese
investors and political authorities along the Balkan Silk Road, lending opportunities at
preferential rates, infrastructure innovation or increased trading opportunities are judged as a
‘win-win cooperation’.
The most visible spill-over effect in macro-economic terms concerns trade relations within the
16+1 framework. Compared to 2009 levels, total trade between China and countries from central,
eastern and southeast Europe almost doubled (see table above). The aggregate data suggests that
the volume of exports from CEE countries to China increased by more than 120 per cent during
that period.
The marked increase in overall trade volumes could be read as a ‘success story’ for all
concerned. But such a conclusion is premature. The increase in trade between China and CEE
countries is highly concentrated on five states participating in the 16+1 framework, i.e. Poland,
32.4
43.9
52.9
52.1
55.1
60.2
26.4
34.6
40.2
38.8
40.5
43.7
6.1
9.3
12.8
13.3
14.6
16.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
China and 16 CEE Countries Trade from 2009 - 2014 (in billion USD)
Total trade Share of exports from China to CEE Share of exports from CEE to China
34
the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Romania who constitute 80 per cent of these trade
exchanges.
20
Therefore, while trade between China and countries in the Balkans is increasing, the spill-over
implications of improved trade relations have a long way to go until they can approximate levels
attained in neighbouring countries such as Poland, Hungary or the Czech Republic. One could
further argue that with the exception of Serbia, the critical mass of domestic market size and its
growth potential just does not exist in countries such as FYR Macedonia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina or Montenegro and Albania.
Thus, trade-related spill-over effects in these countries can be expected to remain limited and
their increase will rather depend on pooling resources between countries in order to attain critical
mass. Furthermore, China’s emerging focus on this set of countries must rather be seen as
preparing the infrastructure network in order to utilize them as transit hubs or transit networks to
move Chinese goods, services and personnel.
The realisation of Chinese-financed transport infrastructure projects will have positive spill-over
effects on cross-border trade capacity. Investment in ports, roads, airports and their connectivity
should reduce the cost and duration of transportation, thereby potentially contributing to higher
trade volumes between China and Balkan economies. Landlocked countries such as Serbia, FYR
Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina should also benefit in terms of cross-border regional
trade from the reduction in transportation time and costs. A further medium-term spill-over effect
could be the establishment of free trade agreements (FTA) between China and the 16 countries in
CEE as well as the conclusion of bilateral visa liberalisation regimes.
However, a note of caution on the countries’ rising trade exposure with China is warranted. At
the macro-economic level the spill-over implications of increased trade with China is based on
the assumption that China does not become a source of shocks. But as Blagrave and Vesperoni
(2016) have observed, “China’s economic transition involves rebalancing, which implies that
spillovers to different countries depend on their exposure to different sectors of the Chinese
economy—secondary sector (predominantly investment) against tertiary sector (more related to
consumption)”.
21
The aforementioned geographical trade imbalance is replicated when considering China’s
outward foreign direct investment in the 16 CEE countries. According to data from the European
Council on Foreign Affairs (see endnote 19), FDI inflows from China were concentrated in
Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia. These six countries took
95 per cent of total Chinese FDI in CEE in 2014.
By contrast, Chinese FDI in individual Balkan economies remains limited and is dominated by
an increasing focus on Serbia. However, it should be noted that the available data until end-2014
somewhat distorts Chinese FDI developments in 2015 and 2016. Chinese deal making and
investment agreements with countries in the region have markedly increased since end-2014, but
are not yet reflected in the available data.
35
Source: Compilation based on data provided by European Council on Foreign Relations, ‘China’s Investment in
Influence: The Future of the 16+1 Cooperation’, ecfr.eu, December 2016, p. 9. As Kosovo is not part of the 16 + 1
cooperation framework, there is no official data available regarding Chinese investment in Kosovo, see
http://www.balkaneu.com/kosovo-left-chinese-investments/.
Serbia’s geographical and commercial proximity to Hungary can explain its rising status as an
‘outlier country’. Serbia not only constitutes an important market in its own right for China.
Investment spill-over effects from Hungary to Serbia and vice versa are possible, illustrated by
the high-profile Belgrade – Budapest railway project initiative.
4.1. Anchor investments creating spill-over effects:
The individual investment, lending and acquisition initiatives of Chinese companies along the
Balkan Silk Road require over time some form of formalisation and strategic outlook. The two
countries where such an approach is most advanced concerns Sino-Greek and Chinese-Serbian
economic relations.
In both cases the cooperation between Beijing on the one side and Athens or Belgrade on the
other is leading to extensive longer-term economic cooperation agreements that have either been
concluded or are at an advanced stage of negotiation. These bilateral pacts include not only a
number of specific investment initiatives. They also provide financing mechanisms in terms of
lending opportunities, visa liberalisation and cultural exchange programmes.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Chinese Investment in Balkan countries, 2009 - 2014 (in million USD)
Serbia Albania BiH FYR Macedonia Montenegro
36
Such agreements are multi-year deals ranging from three years as a minimum to periods without
time limits. Such medium- to long-term horizons provide planning predictability for all parties
included. From the perspective of Greece and Serbia the identification of funding mechanisms is
most critical, as both countries have limited to no access to international capital markets, and the
availability of IFI financing is sometimes regarded as time consuming as well as administratively
arduous.
From such cooperation, the participants identify emerging institutional and infrastructure spill
over effects. They point to regional and/or bilateral cooperation objectives. The longer and
deeper such cooperation takes place with local partners, the higher the capacity for the
development of positive feedback loops.
The most obvious of these infrastructure cooperation projects financed by Chinese investment
and lending concerns the construction of a fast rail link between Belgrade and Budapest. For
both cities, such a project has been on the agenda for more than a decade. Until recently, it did
not take off, primarily for lack of financing capacity. In November 2016, China’s Export-Import
Bank agreed to fund 85 per cent of the bilateral project.
However, there are two key questions left unanswered in this flagship project. One
concerns logistics. The purpose of a high-speed railway line is to transport passengers
and cargo. There are serious doubts about the feasibility of cargo travelling at speeds of
200 KM per hour. Moreover, a transparent cost-benefit analysis of the project has been
found wanting. International observers on the ground argue that it would be more feasible
and cost effective if the existing railway line is substantially upgraded for both passenger
and cargo traffic.
The second issue concerns an investigation launched in January 2017 by the European
Commission into the landmark 350 KM railway project against Hungary. The probe is
looking into the financial viability of the USD 2.89 billion project. It contends that
Hungary is in breach of EU laws by not initiating a proper public tender for a transport
infrastructure project of such a financial magnitude.
Such a rail link – if it is implemented – would be part and parcel of a logistics network
originating in Piraeus, Greece with onward connectivity via rail links and highways through
neighbouring countries and cities. For that reason, Chinese investment is also financing the
construction of some sections of Corridor 11, the highway stretching from Romania to
Montenegro and then via the Adriatic to Italy.
Developing a logistics network across multiple countries requires an anchor investment from
which spill over effects emerge over time. The concept of the anchor investor focuses on
companies and/or state authorities seeking a reassuring buttress over the medium to long-term.
The initial Chinese company COSCO investing since 2009 in the Port of Piraeus is such an
37
anchor investor which generates various follow-up activities in terms of lending, acquisitions and
diversification into other sectors.
Piraeus will enter the list of the world’s 30 biggest container handling ports in 2018. The launch
of West Terminal III is expected to lead to a huge rise in annual capacity. Piraeus Port Authority
head Fu Cheng Qiu expects the Greek port to handle around 5 million containers in 2018. Such
capacity expansion is in line with the objective to turn the port into a transhipment hub between
Asia and Europe.
To illustrate: In 2016 container handling in the Greek port of Piraeus, the largest commercial port
COSCO operates outside China, recorded an all-time high of 3.47 million units. This represented
an increase by 14.4 per cent on 2015 figures. In the period from 2007 to 2016 container handling
grew by a total of 167.7 per cent. In terms of container traffic perspectives, there seems to be no
limit in sight. In the first four months of 2017 container handling traffic rose 5.2 per cent year-
on-year.
Anchor investments can serve as catalysts, thereby attracting additional companies and
expansion into other sectors. The Sino-Hellenic cooperation highlights such spill-over effects
prominently. The Greek telecoms company Forthnet and the Chinese telecom equipment maker
ZTE Corp. teamed up in April 2017 with two other Chinese firms to finance the construction of a
fiber-optic network in Greece.
Equally, the Greek case can also illustrate how an anchor investment in one country serves as
part of a larger emerging puzzle of a stated strategy. Put otherwise, Chinese anchor investments
can be catalysts for additional equity funding in the same sector in other countries. Consequently,
a cross-border cluster of investments is established whose expansion gradually creates a regional
assets portfolio.
To illustrate, in June 2017 COSCO Shipping Ports agreed to purchase a majority stake in
Noatum Port Holdings, the operator of container ports in Valencia and Bilbao, for €203 million.
Apart from the acquisition of additional container terminals in two Spanish port cities, COSCO
also received rail terminals in Madrid and Zaragoza. Such investments form integral parts of a
multi-decade and multi-country strategy.
In the words of COSCO, the stated objective is to “develop[-e] a global terminals portfolio”.
22
This would put the state-owned shipping company in a position to challenge European rivals
such as Maersk or Mediterranean Shipping Company on their home continent. Such Chinese
investments seek to control strategic assets. The ownership of ports from Australia to Greece,
and Albania to Spain expands infrastructure assets while broadening the capacity for trade links
with Asia and Europe.
23
In the case of FYR Macedonia, the construction of the A2/A3 highway from Kicevo to Ohrid
and the Miladinovci to Stip motorway constitute two Sino-FYR Macedonian infrastructure
projects. They have created multi-year construction jobs for two domestic companies working as
sub-contractors. When completed in the second half of 2017, both motorways will be able to
38
alter transport logistics in the country. But they can also serve as a magnet for future business
and investment activities. Both motorways facilitate and reduce travel time along an East-West
corridor, improving connectivity from the capital Skopje to eastern and western regions of the
country, including to adjacent border crossings.
Tangible multiplier effects on job creation and growth for SMEs along the Balkan Silk Road can
be expected to emerge over time. The potential for such benefits to take root will only increase if
and when Chinese companies seek to involve a larger degree of local expertise and domestic
firms, instead of providing (major) parts of the workforce and planning personnel from China
proper. Making such a domestic approach a policy requirement when Chinese companies
compete for public tenders – in particular for EBRD- and EU-related tenders - should be
considered as a conditionality during the bidding process.
But the advocacy of spill-over effects must be placed in context. Is value for money apparent?
What return on investment is feasible? The potential benefits of a new high-speed railway line
between Budapest and Belgrade may be obvious for passenger traffic, but less so for commercial
traffic. In other projects such as the modernization of coal mines into thermal-power plants (e.g.
state-run coal mine operator Banovici in Bosnia and Herzegovina), the potential job creation
effects during the conversion process must be measured against the anticipated costs of
producing thermal power and its sale price on domestic as well as international markets.
4.2. Secondary spill-over effects:
There are also other spill-over effects that materialize over time in a variety of sectors. Some of
these secondary spill-over implications respond to immediate cooperation needs that arise, while
others are the result of regulatory requirements. To illustrate:
Bilateral and cross-regional cooperation among economic councils and chambers of
commerce have become a matter of urgency as a result of the Chinese investment drive.
o The Greek-Chinese Economic Council was established in 2013. The council plays
a coordinating role in the collection, processing and promotion of investment
proposals, drawing up business plans for a variety of sectors.
o The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia is establishing a Centre for
Relations with China and it is a member of the 16+1 (16 chambers of commerce
plus China).
o The Western Balkans Chamber Investment Forum (WB CIF) was established in
Vienna in August 2015. The creation was a joint initiative of the Chamber of
Commerce and Industry in Serbia and the Kosovo Chamber of Commerce. Its
primary objective is the implementation of policy initiatives resulting from the
Berlin Process. The WB CIF has eight members from the region, i.e. from
39
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo, Croatia, Macedonia,
Serbia as well as Slovenia.
o It is noteworthy that while Kosovo is not included in the 16+1 format, it is a
founding member of the WB CIF. In that respect, the joint initiative with the
Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Serbia can be regarded as being a step
ahead of politics in Belgrade concerning the non-recognition of Kosovo.
o This Forum offers a platform for policy coordination, identifying synergies and
streamlining regulatory issues with prospective foreign investors, including from
China. First attempts towards joint action can already be identified in the area of
cultural tourism, software engineering, and food exhibitions.
A key factor facilitating economic and commercial ties along the Balkan Silk Road will
be visa liberalisation. In this area, the role of embassies and consulates is critical.
Foreign ministries from Greece, Serbia, Hungary and FYR Macedonia are accelerating
visa-issuing procedures at the respective diplomatic representations in Beijing.
Chinese infrastructure investments in highways, bridges and power plant modernisation
are also viewed as laying the groundwork - in an optimistic scenario – for the
development or expansion of local SMEs.
o On closer inspection, this assumption needs to be qualified. For the most part,
Chinese investment and/or lending in Serbia, Bosnia and Hercegovina and FYR
Macedonia features Chinese financial resources, workers and strategic planning.
o Greece is an outlier in this respect. Chinese investment is not only more advanced
in terms of duration and diversity of sectors. It is also based on Greek companies
in which the Chinese are the majority owners, but agree to employ the local work
force.
Chinese economic cooperation within the 16+1 framework can also be related to current
and future privatisation opportunities as well as participation in forthcoming public
tenders for large-scale infrastructure projects. The success of two Chinese companies
being awarded EBRD contracts in Serbia can be seen as gradually ‘learning the ropes’ of
public procurement opportunities with such multilateral lenders. It is a matter of time
until this experience spills over to other countries, EBRD offices and EU delegations in
the region.
Another example of spill over effects concerns initiatives to create Chinese-speaking
[higher] education centres in countries participating in the Balkan Silk Road. To
illustrate, in Athens and in Belgrade, Chinese embassies are interacting with local public
and private schools to increase the availability of learning the Chinese language.
The objective to strengthen the cultural interaction between countries along the Balkan
Silk Road is a recent initiative fostered by the Directorate General for Education and
40
Culture of the European Commission in Brussels. In a statement the DG head, Martine
Reicherts, argues that “the ancient Silk Road stood for more than just commerce. For
centuries, it enabled people to move, cultures to blend, and knowledge to be exchanged.”
o To illustrate this increased awareness, the China-Greece Cultural Exchanges and
Cultural Industry Cooperation Year was launched in Athens in April 2017. On
the occasion two memoranda of understanding were signed on film co-production
and translation and the publishing of classic and modern Greek and Chinese
literary works.
41
5. Identifying barriers
This chapter will focus on the identification of key barriers to unlocking the growth potential in
the CSEE region brought by BRI investments, infrastructure projects and logistics developments.
It cannot come as a surprise that such a massive and long-term FDI strategy has its critics and
faces numerous obstacles on its way to implementation.
The former chief economist of the World Bank, Lawrence Summers
24
termed China’s approach
“authoritarian mercantilism”, underlining the central role of state institutions and a host of its
enterprises promoting access to global markets through the vehicle of foreign investment
expansion.
As Chinese-led BRI investments progress in EU as well as non-EU countries, current or future
barriers arise. These barriers can be the result of a lack of communication to affected parties
about the rationale of Chinese investments, their growth potential and long-term objectives. Such
barriers can be established by different constituencies, who may call for domestic and/or
European regulation, if not intervention. To illustrate:
There is a growing concern about rising trade imbalances between China and countries
along the Balkan Silk Road. To illustrate: during the first six months of 2016, Serbia
imported US$ 773 million worth of goods from China, while only exporting US$ 12
million.
Trade unions, employers’ associations, civil society organisations or even regulatory
authorities in countries along the Balkan Silk Road Initiative have called for the increased
monitoring of Chinese investments that risk creating trade imbalances and potential
dependency on loans and credits.
Such calls address the need to define what constitutes relevant (technological) sectors that
are deemed to be “protected” from foreign takeovers. This debate is taking place in
Germany, Greece and gradually gaining currency in countries of south-eastern Europe.
This ‘protectionist’ debate includes the recurring issue of industrial or manufacturing
clusters, and how they can be enlarged, financed and regulated vis-à-vis increasing
Chinese investment interest.
The flip side of this controversy concerns erecting potential barriers for Chinese firms in
European destination countries while at the same time governments and businesses are
calling on the Chinese authorities to lower investment barriers for foreign investors in
China.
A key financial barrier consists in the allegation that Chinese acquisitions and
investments are state-funded subsidies that undercut competitors in selected sectors. The
EU Delegations in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and in FYR Macedonia are aware of
42
this policy conundrum, in particular when concessional lending by Chinese state-owned
banks does not include a public tender process.
Furthermore, a frequent criticism heard in Belgrade, Skopje and Sarajevo focuses on the
view that countries in the region receive so little FDI from Europe that China becomes by
default the only country to turn to.
There is a certain disconnect between the list of prospective investments by China in
individual countries and the reality of agreed finance, matured projects and commenced
work on the ground. This raises the question of substance versus rhetoric, the political
instrumentalisation of Chinese activities and the lack of coherent communications
policies.
These institutional, policy-related and financial barriers are not insurmountable. A focused
policy dialogue with various constituencies, including civil society representatives, in targeted
countries can garner support in accessing the potential opportunities and tackle impediments that
currently exist.
Chinese investors are very aware of how they want to present their initiatives in Europe. In doing
so, they can address critical aspects that concern investment and lending decisions, e.g. what are
the boundaries between Chinese development aid, influence-buying, profit-oriented investment
and projects motivated by resource security concerns? The more BRI-specific activities can
create tangible spillover effects in countries along the Balkan Silk Road, e.g. in terms of SME
growth, job creation and trade facilitation, the higher the chances that the rationale for Chinese
activities is seen as mutually beneficial for all sides concerned.
A comprehensive and rather critical assessment of China’s New Silk Road project was recently
formulated by Clingendael, the Netherlands Institute of International Relations.
25
With Beijing
underwriting billions of euros of infrastructure investments in the western Balkans and the Black
Sea, the authors argue that the potential for transformation in specific sectors is enormous.
However, they also emphasize that China’s ambitions will have to reckon with Russia on the one
hand, and the European Union on the other concerning the development and economic
integration of the region. A further point of contention concerns what officials in Brussels say are
aggressive tactics by Beijing to leverage Europe’s energy supply to extract diplomatic
concessions.
Other critics
26
of the Chinese investment drive along the Balkan Silk Road argue that the surge
of (concessionary) lending to individual countries in the region – which can amount to a large
percentage of a state’s gross domestic product (e.g. in Montenegro) – raises concerns about
China’s leverage over such countries, e.g., when a state falls behind on debt repayments. The
repayment capacity of government institutions or domestic firms subject to Chinese loan
agreements is not obvious. The danger of loans not being repaid in full and on time may open the
door for subsequent political influence by Chinese counterparties. However, it must be
underlined that to date no such cases have come to light.
43
A major barrier to implementing China’s globalization blueprint in European countries became
apparent at the recent high-profile “Belt and Road Forum” in Beijing (May 14-15, 2017).
Various EU member states declined to sign the proposed trade statement which Beijing had
drafted. Key objections were voiced concerning the lack of transparency references, together
with open, rules-based public tenders and reciprocal market access. The European attention to
fair and transparent procurement practices is a reflection of concerns that Chinese companies are
to benefit in future Sild Road contracts, while sidestepping standards in tendering contracts.
44
6. Recommendations for the EBRD
This concluding chapter seeks to provide policy recommendations to the EBRD project team.
The recommendations focus on how best to support the region in maximizing the growth
potential brought by BRI investments. China’s BRI overlaps with about half of the EBRD’s
countries of operation. Hence, the potential scope of Sino – EBRD cooperation is considerable.
But such cooperation would also come under increasing scrutiny, e.g. regarding compliance
requirements.
Since January 2016 China is a shareholder in the EBRD and its 67
th
member. Gradually, a Sino –
EBRD project relationship is emerging. It includes public tenders being awarded to Chinese
companies in Serbia and loan securitization in FYR Macedonia. Furthermore, in June 2016 a
cooperation agreement was signed between the EBRD and the Silk Road Fund. China also
became a cornerstone investor in the Equity Participation Fund (EPF) launched by the EBRD in
September 2016. The State Administration of Foreign Exchange (SAFE), a sovereign wealth
fund from China, committed €250 million to the EPF.
The evolving Sino-southeast Europe relationship is not monolithic. The engagement includes
multiple players with different, at times conflicting agendas. The 16+1 cooperation format
enables countries in central, eastern and southeast Europe to conduct business with various
Chinese lending institutions, state-owned enterprises, central and regional governments, private
companies and diplomatic representations.
The expanding activities of China in Greece, Serbia, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Montenegro,
Bosnia and Hercegovina and Hungary pose challenges for EU Delegations, Commission
Representations and multilateral lenders such as the World Bank, the European Investment Bank
and the EBRD. They must decide how to set priorities and negotiating with Chinese companies
that are seeking to make acquisitions or participating in public procurement tenders.
As the EBRD has recently developed a new Transition Concept, the application of its key
elements faces challenges and opportunities as regards the Chinese surge of activities in the
Balkans and Black Sea region.
27
It can be regarded as a formidable medium-term test case for the
validity of this new concept and how it can be made operational in the interactions with Chinese
investors and lenders seeking access to countries of operation of the EBRD.
To illustrate, the quality of “well-governed” addresses governance issues such as procurement
rules, the pricing of loans and the impact on local economies that need to be addressed with
Chinese counterparties active in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania or even Greece. Like
any other cooperating project partner of the EBRD, e.g., in public tenders, Chinese companies
will be evaluated on the basis of how their activities facilitate the sustainability of market
reforms.
Overall, Chinese investments along the Balkan Silk Road are welcome by policy makers in the
region. This willingness is based on a pragmatic approach on behalf of countries in the western
Balkans. They remain committed to the twin objectives of European Union accession and NATO
45
membership. Despite visible inroads being made by Chinese companies, the main economic
anchor remains with Europe.
This anchor is by far still the region’s largest source of investment and development assistance.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to consider China as a complement to, rather than a substitute
for, the Balkan countries’ European partners. China is an additional source of funding and
infrastructure modernization. But it is not yet a replacement for any of the countries in the
region. At a time when investments in Greece are considered too risky by most foreign
counterparts, Greece has found itself a potential ally in China.
However, existing multilateral IFIs such as the EBRD need to recalibrate their approaches to
compete more effectively in an increasingly Sino-centric region along the Balkan Silk Road. For
its part, China can only gain from embracing transparent governance standards in lending
arrangements with countries participating in the Balkan Silk Road. This forms part of building
reputational capital to match their existing funding capacity.
6.1 Fostering policy dialogue
The magnitude and complexity of the Balkan Silk Road project poses numerous policy
challenges for countries in the region engaging in or seeking to benefit from its implementation.
As highlighted in the previous section, these challenges are substantial, ranging from a critical
assessment of the project’s objectives, the process of stakeholder inclusion, regulatory capacity-
building and co-financing requirements.
Such policy challenges cannot be solved by individual countries single-handedly. They require
advisory services and institutional guidance from international organizations familiar with the
host country and capable of interpreting the challenges and opportunities of the Chinese
initiatives. It is at this critical intersection that an international institution like the EBRD, active
in 36 countries that stretch from central Europe to Central Asia and the southern and eastern
Mediterranean, has a key role of interlocutor to play.
On a macro level, two aspects deserve greater inquiry. It is not always clear from China’s
potential partners in the Balkans and the Black Sea region what they in fact expect from
participation in the BRI. These countries’ co-financing capacities are limited. Equally, many of
the infrastructure projects can improve economic productivity in the medium term. But it
remains an open question, to what degree certain transport links can be monetized. Ports and
pipelines appear easier then thermal power plants and road infrastructure.
This raises the question, who bears short-to-medium-term losses regarding financing, revenue
streams and maintenance costs? If many of these projects are designed primarily to transport and
distribute Chinese goods to different locations in Europe, then the one-way traffic along new
trade routes will hardly be cost effective. These emerging international supply chains would
undoubtedly benefit more if they are operated on the basis of two-way traffic.
28
46
It should further be borne in mind that the emergence of a China-led financial architecture of
new multi-lateral banking institutions requires an organisation like the EBRD to identify its
strategic relationship with these. Put otherwise, how can the EBRD try to maximize its role
alongside China in the new financial architecture? In short, the EBRD must decide whether to
become a stakeholder in a grand project currently being defined primarily by China.
This implies e.g. identifying synergies between the EBRD and Chinese financial institutions as
regards the growing demand for financial and technical assistance in infrastructure investment in
south-eastern Europe. The EBRD has gained valuable policy expertise in this area during the
past three decades in the region, while China has accumulated enough foreign reserves to
contribute to such endeavours.
Mixing and sharing this know-how of the EBRD with the financial resources and investment
determination of Chinese companies can be a ‘win-win’ combination for both parties. Countries
in south-eastern Europe see in China the opportunity to provide them with the financial
assistance to build highways, expand harbours and modernize utility facilities. But they equally
require the presence of institutional anchors such as the EBRD, the EU delegations, the IMF and
others to navigate the procurement process, and safeguard financial transparency and regulatory
fair play.
The engagement of the EBRD in policy dialogue and the provision of technical advice are
crucial in such a multi-layered, long-term investment project as the Balkan Silk Road. In order to
generate support within governments and civil society in the Western Balkans and the southern
and eastern Mediterranean, it is proposed that the EBRD should focus on five fields of
engagement.
These five fields are identified for two reasons. Firstly, on the basis of a needs assessment
resulting from interviews (by the consultant) with stakeholders in various countries along the
Balkan Silk Road project. Secondly, the EBRD has developed numerous advisory and financing
arrangements its countries of operation that can provide policy makers with a toolkit of existing
instruments without having to ‘reinvent the wheel’ wholesale. Rather, the EBRD should use
current and tested instruments while fine-tuning them where necessary to the specifics of the
Balkan Silk Road projects.
1. Ministries, regulatory agencies and municipalities subject to investment initiatives
within the framework of the Balkan Silk Road projects are frequently overstretched with
regard to the licensing requirements, financial implications, zoning regulations and
European Union legal obligations (e.g. granting of subsidies) that encompass
cooperation with Chinese counterparties.
2. The crucial element for governments in the Balkans is how to take control of their
relationship with Chinese counterparties? The local presence of the EBRD in these
47
countries can provide valuable additionality in the context of advancing complex policy
dialogue, setting policy priorities and establishing negotiating skills on their own terms.
a. To illustrate: For the Serbian authorities, the process of including all ratified
(Chinese) project loans in the budgetary reporting process on a yearly basis has
yet to be fully understood. Contributing to such a level of transparency should
form part of the policy dialogue and monitoring process of the EBRD vis-à-vis
the Ministry of Finance and the Central Bank. The IMF representation in
Belgrade has repeatedly addressed this requirement to its Serbian counterparties.
b. A second area of strategic policy dialogue concerns the lending practices of
Chinese banks. Concessional loans offered to Serbian counterparties reduce or
even abolish the need for co-financing. This business practice affects EBRD
lending policies, including the subsequent tendering process with local
authorities, pricing levels and transparency requirements.
c. In the Serbian case the prevailing contract arrangement has been EPC contracting
plus credit lines from Chinese banks (e.g. the flagship railway reconstruction
project Belgrade – Budapest).
d. However, countries involved in EPC contracting with Chinese authorities require
guidance on how to record the impact of EPCs on government accounts. The key
challenge is how to determine the allocation of capital expenditure (gross fixed
capital formation in national accounts), related to specific assets which take place
in different phases of the contract. The EBRD, EU Delegations and IMF
representatives in host countries need to draw closer attention to these
implications vis-à-vis finance ministries and central banks.
3. As a multilateral development bank, the EBRD can bring innovative financing and
technical assistance to economically viable projects along the Balkan Silk Road project
route. The financing arrangements at the disposal of the EBRD (e.g. PPPs, guarantees,
loans and equity) should be linked with products and programmes from other IFIs in
order to reduce countries’ reliance on Chinese financing resources.
a. To illustrate: The EBRD office in Belgrade awarded two tenders to Chinese
companies in 2016. This experience provides opportunities to build and expand a
relationship between both sides, starting with adherence to EBRD and/or EU
procurement rules and thereby establishing a track record of credibility that
Chinese companies still require. Fostering such contract relationships could
prove an invaluable EBRD contribution in the medium-term.
b. Another area of harnessing policy dialogue concerns the current focus of many
Chinese investments and/or lending agreements in the energy sector in south-
eastern Europe. In cooperation with institutions such as the EU Delegations, the
Regional Cooperation Council and the respective line ministries the EBRD
48
should emphasise that e.g. thermal power plant construction requires stringent
compliance with environmental standards and an environmental impact
assessment.
c. As the Balkans and the Black Sea regions appear to become key Chinese entry
points for trade and investment exchanges with Europe, the EBRD should
consider expanding its networking capacity with the Organisation of the Black
Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), the Black Sea Trade and Development Bank
(BSTDB) and the European Banking Federation (EBF) as strategic partners.
4. As the Balkan Silk Road project is first and foremost about trade expansion, the EBRD’s
Trade Facilitation Programme (TFP) should make full use its opportunities in the
countries of operation. This could include EBRD guarantees to commercial banks
concerning payment risk of trade transactions.
a. To illustrate: Selected domestic commercial banks receive a pre-approved credit
limit to support the export, import and local distribution of imported goods and
services. The EBRD’s TFP would focus on assisting domestic lenders to scale up
their trade finance activities.
b. The existing 16+1 format focuses on investments and the willingness of countries
in central, eastern and south-eastern Europe to expand trade cooperation with
China. The surge of Chinese exports to most of these countries has further
increased the trade deficit with China, in particular in Poland, Romania and
Hungary.
c. The EBRD should consider to what degree it can advise participating countries in
the 16+1 format concerning their bilateral trade imbalances with China. Here the
interaction with domestic Chambers of Commerce and regional platforms such as
the WB CIF may harness better synergies.
5. The existing business model of Chinese companies active in the region is hardly
supportive of the local economy. Providing lending and foreign workers bypasses
domestic banks as well as local expertise on the ground. In this respect, even
concessional lending by Chinese banks, frequently praised for its lower costs, may in
fact not be as cheap without spill over effects materializing on the local economy.
Equally, concessional lending requires no local content stipulated in the contracts.
Thus, one of the challenges for an institution such as the EBRD, but also for EU
Delegations, who both have a network of representative offices in the region, is how to
garner more value added from Chinese companies.
The EBRD’s existing Small Business Initiative (SBI) is in a position to provide
small and medium-sized companies with advisory services and complementary financing
options when these engage in projects linked to the Balkan Silk Road. But it can also
49
attempt to nudge Chinese contractors having been awarded an EBRD tender to engage
more pro-actively in supporting local economic structures and facilities.
a. To illustrate: The more infrastructure projects along the Balkan Silk Road take
root, the more people and businesses have opportunities to be connected. This
will take time and does not immediately benefit SME development in individual
countries. But a proposed road project such as the Novi Sad – Irig – Ruma
linking Serbia with Croatia and Bosnia and Hercegovina comprises more than
370,000 residents and approximately 30,000 SMEs along the way.
b. The Chinese investment in the Serbian steel mill Zelezara Smederevo is a
commitment to upgrading existing infrastructure and represents opportunities for
technological transfer. Such investments, less so lending, are entry points for
SME development because the new Chinese owners will also have to rely on
local workers, logistics networks (water, electricity, roads) and municipal,
regional decision makers. Therefore, the EBRD’s SBI can assist in the process of
building commercial and job-related relationships between Chinese and local
Serbian SMEs.
6. The final field of engagement in policy dialogue concerns a critical assessment of the
Balkan Silk Road project in terms of establishing investment dependency for countries in
the region.
a. To illustrate: Medium- to long-term growth perspectives in individual countries
subject to the Balkan Silk Road project are at risk of excessive dependence on
Chinese state investment, in particular state-owned and/or state-dominated
companies.
b. Many of these Chinese companies suffer from heavy indebtedness and export
overcapacity. If Chinese authorities were to rein in lending practices to these
companies, the potential spill over effects to their subsidiaries in the Balkan
region could be considerable in terms of curtailing existing investment plans, job
creation commitments and SME development outlook.
c. Moreover, it is necessary to question the reliance on the top-level design of
business practices and investment plans that characterises many Chinese
companies involved in the Balkan Silk Road project.
29
d. In cooperation with EU Delegations, the IMF, World Bank, etc. EBRD offices in
the Balkans and the Black Sea region should continuously emphasize the rules of
engagement for bilateral trade, transparent financing and open procurement
practices. Chinese road building goes hand-in-hand with transparent corporate
governance.
50
Appendix A. China’s New Silk Road: The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
China’s Belt and Road Initiative, launched under President Xi Jinping in 2013, is China’s most
ambitious south-to-south cooperation plan. The aim of BRI is to connect Asia, Europe and Africa
across more than 60 participating countries. The channels to achieve this ambitious initiative are
through improved and accelerated economic trade across multiple corridors. They seek to
mobilize investments in various sectors such as transport, logistics and energy.
Investments and lending originating from Chinese sources has gone to countries as diverse as
Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, Argentina, Iran, Egypt, the Philippines, Pakistan, and to a lesser degree
to India and Japan.
30
The African continent has 13 participating countries so far.
31
In Europe,
China is actively acquiring specialized manufacturing companies, in particular in Germany,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom and France.
To date, 56 economic and commercial zones have been established along the BRI. According to
a recent report from Credit Suisse, the total BRI investment in the next five years is to be in the
range of USD 313 billion to 502 billion.
32
However, in 2016 investment from the BRI declined. According to Chinese sources in the
Commerce Ministry reported by the Financial Times, foreign direct investment from China to
countries identified as part of the BRI fell two per cent year-on-year in 2016. It dropped an
additional 18 per cent in the first quarter of 2017. Non-financial FDI to BRI countries totalled
USD 14.5 billion in 2016, comprising nine per cent of overall outbound FDI.
33
The BRI along with its industrial ambitions and investment outlook underscores a new far-
reaching phase in China’s aims. These days, Beijing and Shanghai are full of expansion plans in
a host of political economy areas. Under a complimentary plan called Made in China 2015,
China hopes to become largely self-sufficient within eight (!) years in a long-list of industrial
sectors.
34
These sectors include aircraft, high-speed trains, computer chips and robots. The check book for
this self-sufficiency drive is estimated at 300 billion USD in financial resources. It includes
inexpensive lending from state-owned banks, investment funds to acquire foreign technologies
and extensive research subsidies.
Placed in such an expansionary framework, the BRI is a long-term political economy strategy
that represents a fundamental shift in how China seeks to deal with countries on a global scale.
The BRI focuses on connectivity and cooperation among countries along two main routes:
(i) The “Silk Road Economic Belt”, aimed at facilitating land-based trade across the
Eurasian landmass;
(ii) The “21
st
Century Maritime Silk Road”, which aims to use Chinese coastal ports
to link China with Europe and the South Pacific through oceangoing corridors.
51
Beijing’s strategic initiative has mobilized countries and international organisations across
continents like no other Chinese project before. According to various accounts, 65 countries and
numerous international organisations have expressed their interest to participate in the New Silk
Road. On this scale, BRI is seen by countries and organisations involved as a “geo-economic and
geo-political strategy, rather than just a soft power initiative”.
35
On 14.-15. May 2017 heads of state, prime ministers, representatives from international
organisations (UN, IMF, World Bank, EU Commission, etc.) and multinational companies
participated in a summit dedicated to the new Silk Road Initiative in China’s capital. The Belt
and Road Forum served to highlight China’s determination to be recognized on a global stage as
a leading protagonist of international economic cooperation.
Hosting this first major summit did not turn out to be the kind of success story the Chinese
authorities were expecting to propagate. Only 29 national leaders joined the summit. Important
regional powers such as India and Japan did not participate at the level of government leaders in
China’s signature economic-diplomacy initiative.
36
The next BRI summit is scheduled for 2019.
EU Member States, including Germany, France and the United Kingdom declined to sign the
summit’s closing statement on trade. They expressed reservations about its omission of
references to social and environmental sustainability standards as well as transparency
requirements in tendering contracts for infrastructure projects as well as their financing
architecture.
A grand design such as the BRI requires laying the foundations for a Sino-centric financial
architecture. To that end Beijing has made considerable efforts to provide and diversify financial
resources. BRI includes special lending schemes in excess of USD 50 billion and a Silk Road
fund worth USD 40 billion.
Moreover, China is establishing financial institutions that mirror its global development agenda.
This includes the creation of the New Development Bank (NDB) as well as the Asia
Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB).
37
The setting up of the Development Bank of the
Shanghai Co-operation Organisation complements this new financial architecture. These three
institutions add to the financial firepower available to the China Development Bank and the
Export-Import Bank of China.
The BRI reflects China’s long-term ambitions and current economic capacity. China is the
world’s largest manufacturer, biggest exporter and largest domestic market for cars, mobile
phones and oil products. China is now home to two-thirds of the world’s solar production
capacity. When measured by purchasing power, according to the IMF, China became the largest
economy in the world in 2014.
China is today the biggest export market for a total of 43 countries (and growing in numbers and
volumes). Reflecting this trend, in 2016 China became Germany’s largest trading partner. Such a
massive shift in trade flows and demand has geopolitical consequences. These are most
pronounced for China’s trading partners in the Asia-Pacific region, including Japan, Australia,
52
the Philippines and South Korea. The importance of their economic relationships with China is
growing by the day.
The leverage acquired by China through this development and how it is used today and in the
future by the political authorities in Beijing occupies policy makers and analysts. The availability
of Chinese loans, infrastructure investment and imports of goods while gaining a foothold in a
massive export market can contribute to modulating criticism of China’s domestic challenges
such as human rights record, access for foreign firms and foreign policy priorities.
The investments that China has executed in the region of south-eastern Europe in the course of
the past decade form an integral part of BRI. Their strategic logic is apparent from the (initial)
focus on transport infrastructure and implementing investments in individual countries with a
view to a comprehensive regional approach.
The concern that arises from these activities focus on the follow-up question to what degree
governments can afford to ignore Beijing’s wishes? China’s growing significance as a trading
partner and investor for countries in south-eastern Europe has its merits and simultaneous critics.
As a foreign direct investment strategy, the BRI faces domestic hurdles. For one, existing capital
controls in China require that the Chinese government needs to approve such FDI initiatives for
state-owned, semi-private and fully privatized companies. This approval process is usually
positive when the investment or acquisition complies with the strategic rational of the BRI.
The capital controls which were introduced in November 2016 seek to control currency exports.
The key interest of the Chinese government is to make sure that cross-border acquisitions do not
weaken the domestic currency Renminbi. Put otherwise, Beijing wants to prevent a depreciation
of its currency as a result of increased foreign currency outflows.
A1.1. The priorities of BRI
For the region of south-eastern Europe, two countries stand out along the Balkan Silk Road
project, namely Greece and Serbia. The Chinese BRI has five key priorities. They shall be briefly
highlighted below.
Policy Coordination
Countries along the BRI routes are to work together to formulate development plans and engage
in practical co-operation and large-scale project implementation, as well as resolve any problems
that arise from co-operation through consultation. One such potential coordination avenue is the
16+1 format established in 2012 between China and 16 participating countries from central,
eastern and south-eastern Europe (see chapter 4).
The 16+1 club includes current and non-EU members, NATO members and EU candidate
countries as well as five euro area participants. It is also apparent that within this list a number of
53
countries are absent. For one, it should be noted that Greece is not a member in the 16+1
arrangement. It has an observer status. Furthermore, neither is Kosovo a member, nor do Turkey
and Ukraine participate.
Facilities Connectivity
Enhancing and financing connectivity is a key pillar of China’s activities in the region of south-
eastern Europe. It is equally a central benchmark of the EU accession process. Furthermore, in
specific sectors such as transport infrastructure, future connectivity improvements can yield
substantial benefits. According to estimates from the Regional Cooperation Council (RCC) in
Sarajevo, more than 500 trucks pass from Turkey to Germany through the Balkans on a daily
basis.
Prioritisation of new infrastructure, and advancing infrastructure facilities that promote
connectivity such as railways, highways, air routes, telecommunications, oil and natural gas
pipelines and ports, are also key priorities. This aspect of connectivity is multi-layered, pending
on sectors, investment capacity and regulatory oversight.
For EU and non-EU member states, the Chinese investment drive via the Balkan Silk Road
Initiative offers the opportunity for international expansion, enlargement of production capacity
and the development of new products and services. These opportunities lack the financial
resources from host governments and domestic companies. The Chinese investors represent the
openings that would otherwise hardly materialize.
The connectivity that a deep-pocketed investor such as China can provide allows for projects to
go forward since the financing conditions appear less time-consuming and administratively
arduous than seeking these resources on international capital markets and/or through multi-
lateral public financing institutions (e.g. IFIs).
There is a further element of connectivity that should not be underestimated. This involves the
opportunity for companies and utilities to gain or enlarge their access to European and even
global markets that would otherwise not be available. Chinese companies can therefore create
strategically relevant access routes for enlarged and diversified trade and export capacity in
countries along the Balkan Silk Road Initiative. Put otherwise, with the ‘help’ of a large sister
company in China, doors open for European firms in international trade. The (potentially
positive) reputational side effects of this process are key.
China’s emphasis in the BRI is to build and connect global champions through industrial
policies, investment initiatives and lending opportunities. These activities raise concerns about
China’s commitment to a mutually beneficial relationship. Among policy makers and observers
in Athens, Belgrade, Sarajevo and Skopje there is some realization that the commercial and
investment relationships are highly asymmetrical. But there is scant evidence that this concern is
being addressed in some way by domestic policy makers. If at all, then it is carefully voiced by
54
IIFs and multilateral lenders such as the IMF, the EBRD and to a certain extent by central bank
representatives.
Unimpeded Trade and Investment
Resolve investment and trade facilitation issues, reduce investment and trade barriers, lower
trade and investment costs, as well as to promote regional economic integration.
The strategic investment logic of BRI in Europe can be further illustrated by expanding the focus
from Greece and the Balkan Silk Road to included countries such as Germany. The German
companies acquired in the course of 2016 by various Chinese firms are primarily located in the
manufacturing sector, with a special emphasis on technological innovation.
Chinese Merger & Acquisition Deals in Germany in 2016 - 2017
CHINESE COMPANY
ACQUIRED GERMAN
FIRM
PURCHASE PRICE
(IN BILLION USD)
MIDEA
Kuka*
4.663
BEIJING ENTERPRISES
EEW
1.594
CHINA THREE GORGES
Wind MW
1.440
CHEMCHINA
KraussMaffei
1.011
IDG, MLS, YIWU
Ledvance
0.400
TECHCENT
Alba (partly)
0.300
GENTING
Nordic Yards
0.250
NINGBO JOYSON
Technisat
0.236
TECHCENT
Bilfinger Water
0.223
LIAONING DARE
Carcoustics
0.200
NINGBO JIFENG
Grammer (2017)
0.060
HNA GROUP
Deutsche Bank (2017)
(9.92 % Shareholding)
CREAT GROUP CORP.
Biotest AG (2017)
0.940
Source: Börsen-Zeitung, 26.01.2017: “China hat es in Deutschland schwerer” (China’s difficulties in
Germany).
* The German government initially resisted the sale of the robot manufacturer Kuka to the private
Chinese home appliance producer Midea in 2016. The takeover of the German semi-conductor company
55
Aixtron by China's Fujian Grand Chip Investment Fund was blocked by the United States on security
grounds in late 2016.
Contrary to private equity partners who had owned some of these companies before, e.g. Krauss
Maffei, the new Chinese owners pursue a long-term strategy, are not interested in a quick exit,
and are prepared to provide favourable refinancing terms.
The Chinese owners can use their investment in leading European firms to improve their
reputation on world markets, increasing export capacity and turning into a reliable trading
partner. But the vice versa effect should not be underestimated either. Most of the Chinese firms
are state-owned with a strong focus on domestic markets.
The challenge for companies such as Krauss Maffei in Germany, the Port of Piraeus in Greece
or the steel mill Zelezara Smederevo in Serbia rests in expanding their new owners’
understanding of the rules of the game on world markets to the domestic and regional conditions,
be it in shipping, plastics manufacturing or mechanical engineering or road infrastructure.
China’s ambition in Germany extends beyond the acquisition and investment drive. It also
includes the construction and financing of a new rail freight route carrying Chinese
manufacturers from the city of Zhengzhou overland through Russia to Hamburg, Germany where
Europe’s second largest commercial port is located (after Rotterdam, The Netherlands).
Financial Connectivity
The availability of financial resources by Chinese authorities forms an integral part of the Balkan
Silk Road project. The primary instrument is lending at concessional terms to state bodies, public
institutions and companies for infrastructure projects.
To what degree such lending can deepen multilateral and bilateral financial cooperation remains
a matter of debate. It is early days to argue that it has enhanced coordination in monetary policy.
What is taking place is the emergence of regional development financial institutions (see below).
These initiatives seek to strengthen cooperation, but the monitoring and managing of financial
risks is not yet a priority area.
To illustrate: In the course of the past decade, China has gradually established and facilitated the
development of financial governance structures that can serve to support the BRI. This emerging
financial architecture includes multilateral institutions such as the Asia Infrastructure Investment
Bank (AIIB), the New Development Bank (NDB), and the Silk Road Fund (SRF).
The AIIB started operations in 2016. China’s stake in the AIIB is 30 per cent, while its voting
share is 28 per cent. But this voting share does not give China the capacity to veto projects. It
should also be underlined that the AIIB does not only exist for China’s benefit. As a newly
established IFI, the AIIB currently has 56 founding members and 24 prospective members.
56
Britain, Germany and France are founding members of the AIIB, while the United States has so
far refused to join the institution. Its headquarters are located in Beijing.
A host of Chinese commercial and specific (sectoral) policy banks further supplement this
construction of financing channels, e.g. the China Development Bank
38
(CDB), the Export and
Import Bank of China (EIBC), Postal Savings Bank (PSB) and the China Agricultural
Development Bank (CADB). Many of these Chinese-led financial institutions are both
cooperating with and competing against existing development banks, most notably the Asian
Development Bank and the World Bank.
As regards financial cooperation between China and multilateral lenders headquartered in
Europe, a web of financial connectivity is emerging. On the occasion of the BRI Forum in May
2017, six multilateral lenders signed an MoU to support China’s Belt and Road Initiative. They
include the Asian Development Bank, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, the New Development Bank, the World Bank, and the
European Investment Bank.
At the domestic level, the presence of financial institutions from China in southeast Europe is
progressing at a slow pace. Overall, Chinese banks have so far hesitated to enter local markets in
south-eastern Europe. The prevailing modus operandi is debt financing of investments through
banks operating from China (or Hong Kong) rather than establishing a network along the Balkan
Silk Road. Equity funding is slowly gaining ground, notably in Greece and Serbia.
A banking footprint is gradually being established. In the case of Greece, the China Development
Bank (CDB) signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Bank of Greece in July
2016. In Serbia, the Bank of China opened a new branch in Belgrade in January 2017. Financial
connectivity is also being facilitated by the creation of two Sino – CEE Investment Cooperation
Funds, first in 2012 and most recently in 2016. The second of these funding channels has an
initial investment capital of USD 11 billion, with a leverage ratio of one to five, seeking to raise
50 billion euros in project finance (see footnote 7).
People-to-People Bond
A further priority area concerns the promotion of exchanges and dialogues between different
cultures and to heighten mutual understanding and traditional friendships to form the basis for
the advancement of regional co-operation.
This people-to-people bond is all the more relevant when the arrival or subsequent surge of
Chinese investments in BRI related countries raises concerns among domestic political
authorities, collective bargaining organisations (e.g. trade unions) and civil society
representatives. Put otherwise, in most initiatives it is China that intends to define the parameters
of lending, employment impact (domestic or Chinese workers) as well as being a rule maker and
less a rule-taker.
57
The feedback from domestic stakeholders engaged in the Balkan Silk Road project suggests that
some see an uncomfortable role of junior partner in the Sino-Hellenic or Chinese-Serbian
relationship. The economic, financial and diplomatic muscle that Chinese institutions bring to the
table in south-eastern Europe add up to a sphere of expanding influence that sits uncomfortable
with some domestic policy makers and observers.
The initial reaction by political authorities may be to try and protect specific companies, sectors
and industries deemed “essential” in the national interest. In such circumstances, it is critical that
Chinese investors focus on a set of exchanges and dialogues that include:
Clear and transparent communication of business objectives in the proposed acquisition
or investment transaction. This approach focuses on underlining the credibility of China’s
ambitions and seeking to address potential misgivings about BRI;
Address potential concerns about “fire sales” and “loss of know how” with arguments to
the contrary, e.g. providing access to financial resources, improved trade options on
Chinese markets, better operational perspectives for domestic businesses, job creation
impact, etc.
Provide in such people-to-people exchanges as much transparency as possible regarding
financial dealings, procurement practices and why funding for infrastructure projects
requires additional resources beyond what can be provided by the World Bank, IMF,
EBRD or IPA assistance from the Commission in Brussels.
58
Appendix B:
List of interview partners in individual countries
Greece:
Mr Liu Jingdong, Public Diplomacy Director, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in
Athens, Greece.
George Tzogopoulos, Researcher, Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy
(ELIAMEP) as well as founder of http://chinaandgreece.com/, Athens.
Nick Malkoutsis, Founding Member of Macropolis, Athens.
Germany:
Lothar Altmann, Associate Professor at the UNESCO Department for International &
Intercultural Relations, Bucharest State University.
Serbia:
Daniel Berg, Director, Head of Serbia, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
Belgrade.
Peter Tabak, Lead Economist for Croatia, Serbia and Russia, European Bank for Reconstruction
and Development, Belgrade.
Danica Milovanovic, Director, Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, Belgrade.
Nenad Durdevic, Director of the International Economic Relations Division, Chamber of
Commerce and Industry of Serbia, Belgrade.
Predrag Bjelic, Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics,
Sebastian Sosa, Resident Representative in Serbia, International Monetary Fund, Belgrade.
Marko Paunovic, Economist, International Monetary Fund, Belgrade.
Martin Knapp, Exekutive Director, German-Serbian Chamber of Commerce, Belgrade.
Lutz Kober, Project Director for Serbia and Montenegro, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Belgrade.
Klaus Fiesinger, Regional Director for south-eastern Europe, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Zagreb.
59
Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Ian Brown, Head of EBRD office in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo.
Hamdo Tinjak, Secretary of the Ministry, Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations,
Sarajevo.
Gazmend Turdiu, Deputy Secretary General, Regional Cooperation Council, Head og
Programme Department, Sarajevo.
Prof. Fikret auevi, School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo.
Adnan Muminovi, Political Economic Adviser, Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia
and Herzegovina and European Union Special Representative in BiH, Sarajevo.
Michael Weichert, former head of regional office for south-eastern Europe, Friedrich Ebert
Foundation, Sarajevo.
FYR Macedonia:
Christine Althauser, Ambassador, Federal Republic of Germany, Skopje.
Ljubomir Drakulevski, Dean of Faculty of Economics, Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje.
Nikola Naumoski, NGO representative, The Balkan vive tour.
Vasko Popetrevski, Journalist, Skopje.
Dragan Tevdovski, Minister of Finance, Skopje.
Milan Zivkovic, head of office, Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Skopje.
60
Endnotes:
1
European Council on Foreign Relations, “China’s Investment Influence: The Future of 16+1
Cooperation”, ECFR.eu China Analysis, December 2016, http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-
/China_Analysis_Sixteen_Plus_One.pdf.
2
For full list of deliverables from the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation see
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-05/16/content_29359377.htm.
3
Jens Bastian, “China - Greece: One Belt, One Road?”, Macropolis, 29.04.2015,
http://www.macropolis.gr/?i=portal.en.the-agora.2470&itemId=2470.
4
COSCO Shipping is the owner of the world's fourth largest container fleet.
5
Following the Port of Piraeus acquisition Cosco Shipping is considering supplementing this move with
an additional port investment in northern Greece. One candidate under consideration is the port of
Alexandroupoli. The city in the region of East Macedonia and Thrace benefits from its position at the
center of land and sea routes connecting Greece with Turkey and Bulgaria.
6
The first Celestyal Cruise ship carrying a group of Chinese tourists set sail from the Port of Piraeus in
April 2017. The project took two years to finalize. Celestyal will also use the Greek port of Lavrio for
home porting. It features Chinese crew members, cuisine and guides for the Greek sites.
7
See: “China Launches $11 billion Fund for Central, Eastern Europe”,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-eastern-europe-fund-idUSKBN13105N.
8
See Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Serbia, unpublished policy paper: “Chinese Investments in
CEE”, April 2017. The Chinese ambassador to Serbia speaks fluent Serbian.
9
In 2015 the Chinese company Landbridge Group bought a 99-year lease on the port of Darwin on
Australia’s northern coast.
10
See European Commission, Directorate-General, Trade in Goods with FYR Macedonia, page 8,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113381.pdf.
11
See Sinisa Jakov Marusic, ‘Macedonia Buys New Trains from China’, Balkan Insight, 25. June 2014,
http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/macedonia-buys-new-trains-from-china
12
See European Commission, Directorate-General, Trade in Goods with Bosnia and Herzegovina, page 8,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2008/august/tradoc_140028.pdf.
13
See http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/china-opens-new-belgrade-bank-as-balkan-hub-01-27-
2017#sthash.VNpSJxoq.dpuf
14
See http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/serbia-s-credit-based-economic-cooperation-lacks-direct-
investments-06-14-2016
15
See European Commission, Directorate-General, Trade in Goods with Bosnia and Herzegovina, page 8,
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113358.pdf.
16
See more at: https://www.seenews.com/news/bosnias-epbih-seeks-govt-guarantee-for-chinese-loan-for-
tuzla-tpp-project-554235#sthash.V5fMhyWP.dpuf
61
17
There is some need for clarification about this co-financing element from a state-owned company.
Some observers argue that it is subject to an inquiry about state aid rules. This would also further explain
the long delays in any decision-making process.
18
See „Changing with the Region. RCC Strategy and Work Programme 2017-2019“, RCC, Sarajevo,
Year III, No. 3, p. 5.
19
Policy makers in BiH lament that major cross border infrastructure bypass the country, such as the
Transadriatic Pipeline (TAP) and Southstream. This is seen as a major impediment to attracting higher
volumes of investor interest, from Russia, Turkey and EU countries. Equally, the absence of EU
Candidate Status for BIH further contributes to these “branding or marketing issues”.
20
See European Council on Foreign Relations, ‘China’s Investment in Influence: The Future of the 16+1
Cooperation’, ecfr.eu, December 2016, p. 6.
21
See Patrick Blagrave and Esteban Vesperoni, “Spillover Implications of China’s Slowdown for
International Trade”, Spillover Task Force, International Monetary Fund, September 2016, No. 4, p. 1.
22
See Financial Times, “Cosco Shipping buys controlling stake in Spanish port for €203m”, 13. June
2017, https://www.ft.com/content/26c99549-29d4-3d00-8714-e62d22e83bcf.
23
Chinese investments in European ports is not matched by European access to Chinese ports. Not a
single Chinese port is majority-owned by a European company. But COSCO is increasingly becoming the
majority owner of various European ports. See Ben Bland, “Acquisitive Beijing Sets Course for Shipping
Dominance”, FT, 18
th
July 2017.
24
Lawrence Summers, “Put American Foreign Policy Back on the Pitch”, Financial Times, July 6
th
, 2014.
25
Frans-Paul van der Putten (ed.), Francesco Saverio Montesano, Johan van de Ven and Peter van Ham,
„The Geopolitical Relevance of Piraeus and China’s New Silk Road for Southeast Europe and Turkey“,
Clingendael Report, December 2016,
https://www.clingendael.nl/sites/default/files/Report_the%20geopolitical_relevance_of_Piraeus_and_Chi
na%27s_New_Silk_Road.pdf.
26
See e.g.: ‘China’s Investment Influence: The Future of the 16+1 Cooperation’, European Council on
Foreign Relations, December 2016.
27
See “EBRD Updates Transition Concept”, November 2016, http://www.ebrd.com/news/2016/ebrd-
updates-transition-concept-.html
28
See Martin Sandbu, ‘Europe Must Respond to China’s Belt and Road Initiative’, Financial Times, May
16, 2017, https://amp.ft.com/content/1edf0d68-3a1e-11e7-821a-6027b8a20f23.
29
Such a critical assessment is starting to be voiced – albeit in careful terms – by Chinese sources
themselves. In early 2017 a report circulated in Beijing with the title: “The Reform Obstruction
Phenomenon”. It was written by researchers from the Economic System and Management Institute of
China’s National Development and Reform Commission. This Commission steers policy on industry,
energy and many other sectors, domestic and abroad.
62
30
India has been resistant to getting on board. Delhi has objections to those aspects of BRI that risk to
impinge on its national sovereignty. Tokyo is wary of being seen to play a ‘subordinate’ role in any
Chinese master plan, despite its reliance on trade with China.
31
In December 2015 China’s President Hi attended a meeting of African leaders in Johannesburg. He
offered extensive lending contracts and the following description of his government’s activities in Africa:
“China supports the settlement of African issues by Africans in the African way” (quoted according to:
Eswar Prasad: “China Takes Aim at West’s Global Clout”, The New York Times (International Edition),
02.09.2017.
32
See https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-05-04/china-s-belt-road-plan-may-top-500-billion-
credit-suisse-says.
33
See “China ‘New Silk Road’ investment fell in 2016, despite policy push. Xi Jinping’s signature
initiative faces headwinds as politics and profit collide”, in Financial Times,
https://www.ft.com/content/156da902-354f-11e7-bce4-9023f8c0fd2e.
34
The World Bank’s International Comparison Program measures the size of a country’s economy based
on purchasing power parities. On that basis, China overtook the United States as the world’s largest
economy in 2014.
35
See Angela Stanzel, ‘China’s Belt and Road – New Name, Same Doubts””, European Council on
Foreign Relations, 19
th
May 2017,
http://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_chinas_belt_and_road_new_name_same_doubts
36
While India boycotted the event completely, Japan only sent a representative (the secretary general)
from the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan to the BRI Forum.
37
So far 18 EU member states have joined the AIIB.
38
The most active financial institution to date (in terms of loan exposure) is CDB with more than 900
financed projects in 62 countries and committed lending exceeding 800 billion US dollars (see
Kathimerini, 25
th
February 2017, “Μια Ζώνη, Ενας Δρόμος» και πολλές συνεργασίες” (“One Belt, One
Road” and Many Co-operations”.