Oppression, Empowerment, and the Role of the Interpreter

Montview Liberty University Journal of Montview Liberty University Journal of

Undergraduate Research Undergraduate Research

Volume 2 Issue 1 Article 1

2016

Oppression, Empowerment, and the Role of the Interpreter Oppression, Empowerment, and the Role of the Interpreter

Erika L. Ziebart

Liberty University

, eziebart@liberty.edu

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Running head: OPPRESSION, EMPOWEMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 1

Oppression, Empowerment, and the Role of the Interpreter

Erika Ziebart

Liberty University

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 2

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 3

Oppression, Empowerment, and the Role of the Interpreter

Most minority groups have had a long history of oppression, and the Deaf

are no

exception. Because most people that are Deaf use sign language to communicate, they often need

an interpreter when they interact with hearing people. Many times interpreters are placed in

situations in which they can oppress the Deaf, and it is important for them to become aware of

oppressive tendencies so that they can eliminate those behaviors and become allies.

The hearing majority has oppressed the Deaf minority throughout history and has

affected how interpreters work with the Deaf. The Deaf have been constantly told what they

should do and how to act so they can better fit in with the majority: “hearing people are the

majority group. ‘It’s a hearing world,’ they say, meaning, deaf people should conform to our

ways” (Lane, 1999, p. 80). This type of oppression has been coined audism, which is defined as

“the hearing way for dominating, restructuring and exercising authority over the deaf

community” (Lane, 1999, p. 43). In other words, audism occurs when a person believes that one

is superior or inferior based on his or her ability to hear or to behave like those who can hear

(Lane, 1999). Another form of oppression that stems from audism is when Deaf people are told

that they are defective and need to be fixed to become more like those who hear (Baker-Shenk,

1986). This behavior clearly informs the Deaf that they do not have the same level of

intelligence: “labeling Deaf people as a lesser species, the dominant society constituted Deaf

people as beings that could not adequately care for themselves, thus authorizing society to

undertake that responsibility” (Jankowski, 1997, p. 41). Sadly, some Deaf start to believe what

When using the capital “D” in the word Deaf, this refers to deaf or hard of hearing individuals that are part of a

cultural and linguistic minority known as the Deaf community. When a lower case “d” is used, the term refers to the

individual’s deafness or hearing loss.

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 4

society tells them. Roughly ninety percent of deaf children are born to hearing parents, most of

whom never learn to sign with their children (Leonard, Duren, & Reiman, 2007). Instead of

empowering deaf children to fully function without the use of hearing, doctors impress on

parents that a deaf child’s hearing loss must to be repaired, and because the parents often have

never met a Deaf person or been exposed to Deaf culture or American Sign Language (ASL),

they end up pursuing treatments. When parents are so focused on treating their child’s hearing

loss, the deaf child will grow up thinking he or she was defective, and while hearing aids and

cochlear implants can be provided, the child still does not have full access to the auditory

language like a hearing individual (Lane, 1999). Many experts tell parents not to use ASL when

communicating with their deaf children, due to a myth that signing would prevent them from

learning English, yet if they cannot comprehend oral communication, the result is that the

children grow up isolated in their own homes (Lane, 1999). Only recently have Deaf people been

given rights (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). In the past, interpreters and those that helped the Deaf

were often volunteers and church members. It was not until 1990 when the Americans with

Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed that people began to realize that Deaf people deserve

accommodations; however, the Deaf still did not get equal access to communication (Brunson,

2008). Also, although the Deaf were able to get accommodations to interpreters after ADA, the

quality of the interpreter was often poor (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). Numerous interpreters

viewed their Deaf clients as less intelligent, while others would add or subtract to the message

being given to the Deaf individual (Brunson, 2008). Often interpreters witness and experience

firsthand the oppression of the Deaf and many times the insults to the community are

communicated through their hands while they interpret what the hearing client speaks

(Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). These negative experiences with interpreters can cause the Deaf to

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 5

struggle with separating interpreters from the majority of hearing people, especially since it is the

interpreters that profit from their deafness (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). Recognizing these

“characteristics of the oppressed and the oppressor is an important step in balancing the power

between Deaf and hearing participants” (Leonard, Duren, & Reiman, 2007, para. 10). Once a

form of oppression has been identified and admitted, an interpreter can then take steps to resolve

it and replace oppression with empowerment.

Although oppression generally comes from hearing people that do not understand the

Deaf, interpreters are often oppressors. The influences and negative views of the hearing

majority have greatly affected how interpreters think about the Deaf. Before the Registry of

Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) was established, nearly all interpreters were well-intentioned

volunteers that thought they should help take care of the Deaf (Witter-Merithew, 1999). It is

because of such beliefs about Deaf people that “resulted in a model of interpretation that was

paternalistic in nature. The relationship between interpreter and deaf person was not equal.

Often, interpreters were directive with deaf persons, telling them what to do” (Witter-Merithew,

1999, p. 2). The stereotyping of the Deaf as incompetent inevitably led to interpreters believing

that the Deaf needed assistance beyond language transliteration. As a result interpreters

commonly did not just interpret, but also acted on behalf of the Deaf person—like a parent. This

kind of treatment led the Deaf to feel powerless and to take on the attitude in which they told

themselves, “I can’t do anything about it” (Baker-Shenk, 1986, p. 5). Such oppressive behavior

can be exhibited by interpreters both subtly and bluntly. According to Charlotte Baker-Shenk,

“In many situations, we stand between the Deaf person and what they want. That gives us great

power. In most cases, we are the only ones there who have access to both languages and

cultures” (1992, p. 3). There are many different ways subtle oppression manifests itself. One

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 6

such way includes the interpreters that are overly controlling of the situation (Brunson, 2008).

An over controlling interpreter oversteps his or her boundaries and leaves the Deaf client in an

awkward position of being cared for like a child that does not know any better. Sometimes the

interpreter attempts to control his or her Deaf client directly, by attempting to influence the Deaf

person or to persuade them to do, or not do, certain things. One example was during a legal

interaction where an interpreter gave the Deaf client advice:

Tommy does not remember what else happened in the hearing; he only remembers the

interpreter telling him not to say anything…. Tommy was not concerned about the

interpreter providing guidance or advice initially, even though he knew it was

inappropriate. Only later, when he realized the advice was erroneous, did he seem to

become upset about the fact that the interpreter had tried to advise him during the

hearing. Providing advice violates the ethical and normative boundaries that structure the

role of the interpreter. (Brunson, 2008, p. 85)

Some interpreters have good intentions and want to support the Deaf community, yet if

they become an advocate for the Deaf oppression can sneak in (Baker-Shenk, 1992). Because an

advocate is someone who speaks up for others, hearing people naturally seek out the interpreter

rather than the Deaf individual when asking questions about sign language, Deaf culture, and the

Deaf community. If the interpreter acts as an advocate, then the attention becomes diverted off

the Deaf community to the hearing signer, which defeats the purpose of empowering the

minority and replaces empowerment with a subtle form of oppression. Interpreters that are

advocates can cause hearing people to think they are the experts but in reality it is the Deaf

people themselves, who actually experience the disenfranchisement and are in the minority

group, who are the experts (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). Baker-Shenk described what happened

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 7

when she became an advocate for the Deaf: “I thought I was helping to free/liberate Deaf people.

In retrospect, it’s funny, but in some ways, I was also trying to ‘control them into freedom!’ ‘If

you do this, this, and this, you’ll get there’” (1992, p. 8). Because this is a subtle form of

oppression, it often slips by without getting corrected. This is one of the most dangerous forms of

oppression because it disguises disempowerment with good intentions.

Some interpreters seem to blatantly and, perhaps, even purposefully oppress the Deaf.

While this kind of oppression is rare among interpreters, Deaf people do “experience abuse at the

hands of unethical and insensitive members of the interpreting community” (Humphrey &

Alcorn, 2007, p. 136). One clear example of such oppression would be when interpreters have an

indifferent attitude and have a lack of respect for the Deaf people they work with. This can

happen if interpreters are not willing to admit when they do not understand the Deaf client

(Brunson, 2008). When there is a miscommunication and the interpreter ignores it, the Deaf may

blame themselves, thinking they are intellectually inferior to their hearing peers, which is what

the majority believes and impresses on them. Often, it is the interpreter that “is at least partially

at fault for the confusion, but deaf people still most often blame themselves” (Baker-Shenk,

1986, p. 8). Worse yet, some interpreters actually blame miscommunication on the Deaf person.

Others are too proud and will refuse feedback given to them from their clients (Gilbert, 2013).

Unfortunately, even when interpreters have poor signing skills or lack proper certification, they

still get hired:

It’s fair to say that the majority of hearing people who work as “interpreters” are far from

fluent in ASL and that most of them transliterate rather than interpret. What does it

communicate to deaf people when “interpreters” don't know and don’t use ASL—even

when that’s the preferred mode of communication for the deaf person? Is it telling them

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 8

that ASL is not worth learning? Or that it is not really a language? (Baker-Shenk, 1986,

p. 9)

Whether the oppression of interpreters is overt or goes unnoticed, there are ways to cease

such behaviors and instead take on an attitude that empowers the Deaf. Those that wish to end

oppression first need to learn and understand what causes it. Often, the interpreters are

oppressive simply because they have grown “up in a society surrounded by oppressive attitudes”

(Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007, p. 141). Once interpreters understand oppression and identify it in

their lives, they can remove those tendencies. Before interpreters can empower the Deaf, they

must remember their role as communicators between two languages and cultures, a model of

interpreting known as bilingual-bicultural or bi-bi (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). It is not the

interpreter’s job to advise the Deaf or tell them how to behave; interpreters are there to bridge

communication between Deaf and hearing individuals. An interpreter knows his or her job was

done well when dynamic equivalence for Deaf and hearing people is accomplished, which is

when the meaning and intent of the clients was accurately portrayed by the interpreter

(Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). Interpreters should never add or take away from the meaning or

intent of the message spoken or signed. To effectively interpret, they must have skills in both

languages and be able to adjust to the needs of their clients (Witter-Merithew, 1999).

It is

important that the interpreter can “recognize the cultural values that will influence both the Deaf

and hearing parties’ behavior” (Leonard, Duren, & Reiman, 2007, para. 16). Many Deaf people

have said how important it is that they communicate with their interpreter, and that the

interpreter does not take feedback in the wrong way when it is given; it is necessary for

interpreters to be able to accept feedback from their clients because this will help empower the

Deaf (Gilbert, 2013). Although interpreters witness oppression and may at times have to interpret

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 9

derogatory remarks to the Deaf community, they are a part of the majority group and will never

experience or be able to comprehend being Deaf (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007). Because of their

hearing status, interpreters do not face the trials of audism like the Deaf and must respect the

Deaf community and language; this means they do not advocate, but they can and should give

support to the Deaf as allies. An ally is one who works alongside and supports the goals of a

community while an advocate speaks on behalf of the community and tells them how to change;

it is clear that the most empowering role for those that can hear is to become allies to the Deaf

(Baker-Shenk, 1992). Another way to empower the Deaf is to use Certified Deaf Interpreters

(CDI). A hearing interpreter can pair up with a CDI to provide better access to the Deaf clients.

A CDI is a

deaf person who has been trained as an interpreter to work with a hearing person to

provide a more fluent and accurate interpretation of messages between ASL to English

and English to ASL. The deaf interpreter functions as the primary interpreter who

interacts with the deaf client. The hearing interpreter functions as the interpreter for the

deaf interpreter conveying English messages into ASL…. This is yet another way in

which Ally Interpreters share power and support the role of deaf people in empowering

themselves and other deaf people. (Witter-Merithew, 1999, p. 7)

By constantly working at improving skills and knowledge, the interpreter can become an

effective ally in the Deaf community instead of another hearing person that oppresses them. Ally

interpreters need to foster equality and remember that “hearing people are not the saviors of Deaf

people” (Humphrey & Alcorn, 2007, p. 140-141). While interpreters may be tempted to be

advocates and speak up for the Deaf, it is better for them to become allies. Although the hearing

majority currently views deafness as a disability, they forget that the Deaf share a unique culture.

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 10

Many people have yet to realize that deafness is more than just a disability; “educators of deaf

people since the early part of the last century have acknowledged that deaf people … often

belong to a socially distinct, cohesive group with its own language and social norms” (Parasnis,

1996, p. 5). As more of the hearing majority learns to see the Deaf as a distinct people with their

own language instead of being disabled, oppression that comes with ignorance will start to fade

away.

The battle against oppression of the Deaf is still being fought today. Because the majority

typically views the Deaf minority as odd and needing to conform to a hearing society, audism is

still very much alive. If interpreters are not careful, they can start to believe the stereotypes of the

Deaf. If an interpreter wants to get rid of oppressive behavior and become someone who

empowers the Deaf, he or she needs to keep sight of his or her goals as an ally—as someone who

comes alongside and supports the goals of the Deaf community. Interpreters can also use CDIs,

which allow interpretations in ASL to be more organized and fluid. When interpreters devote

their time to develop their skills and a true passion for becoming an ally, the Deaf will notice the

change. To be an effective interpreter, one must constantly work at improving one’s competence

with skills in interpreting and ASL. Instead of becoming a leader of the Deaf, the interpreter

should seek to support leaders that are Deaf in the community. It is only when Deaf and hearing

people work together that will overcome oppression. Interpreting is a privilege and should be

taken seriously. The end goal is dynamic equivalence for Deaf and hearing people; when all

clients have equal access in the area of communication, the ally interpreters know that the Deaf

are empowered.

OPPRESSION, EMPOWERMENT, AND THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER 11

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